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Synthesis of Acetylsalicylic Acid Essay. Acetylsalicylic Acid (Aspirin) Synthesis. Sumicad, CJ, Tavanlar, EMMT, Chem 40.1, Institute of Chemistry, University of the Philippines Los Banos. Organic synthesis is the process where a desired organic compound is constructed or prepared from commercially available materials. The objective of organic synthesis is to design the simplest synthetic routes to a molecule. Aspirin, also known as acetylsalicylic acid is as salicylate drug often used as analgesic to relieve minor aches and Writing a scholarship essay, pains, as an antipyretic to reduce fever, and as an anti-inflammatory medication.

The history of aspirin and to start an essay, its medical use can be traced way back in the secong millenium BCE. Medicines from willow and other salicylate-rich plants appear in the Egyptian pharonic pharmacology papyri. During 400 BCE in Greece, Hippocrates gives women willow tree leaf to relieve the pain of childbirth. He also used salicylic tea to reduce fevers. Willow bark extract then became known for its effectiveness in reducing fever, pain and inflammation in a scholarship essay yourself the mid- eighteenth century. By nineteenth century,pharmacists were experimenting with and make a assignment bibliography, precribing a variety of chemicals related to salicylic acid, an Writing a scholarship active component of willow extract. In 1853, chemist Charles Frederic Gerhardt treated acetyl chloride with sodium salicylate to produce acetylsalicylic acid for the first time; in the second half of the nineteenth century, other academic chemists established the College homework organizing, compound’s chemical structure and devised more efficient methods of synthesis. In 1897, scientists at the drug and dye firm Bayer began investigating acetylsalicylic acid as a less-irritating replacement for Writing essay, standard common salicylate medicines. Aspirin was first isolated by Felix Hoffmann, a chemist in the German company Bayer. By 1899, Bayer had dubbed this drug Aspirin and was selling it around the world. The word Aspirin was Bayer’s brand name, rather than the generic name of the Personal statement samples, drug; however, Bayer’s rights to Writing a scholarship about begin the trademark were lost or sold in many countries.

Aspirin’s popularity grew over the first half of the twentieth century, spurred by its effectiveness In the wake of Spanish flu pandemic of 1918, and aspirin’s profitability led to fierce competition and the proliferation of Writing essay entrance aspirin brands and Writing a scholarship essay about yourself begin, products. Some of the 1918 flu deaths were probably due to Aspirin poisoning. Aspirin’s popularity declined after the development of acetaminophen/ paracetamol in 1956 and ibuprofen in 1962. In the 1960s and 1970s, John Vane and others discovered the Phd thesis, basic mechanism of aspirin’s effects, while clinical trials and other studies from the 1960s to the 1980s established aspirin’s efficacy as an anti-clotting agent that reduces the risk of clotting diseases. Aspirin sales revived considerably in the last decades of the twentieth century, and remain strong in the twenty-first with widespread use as a preventive treatment for heart attacks and strokes.

In the preparation aspirin, salicylic acid is Writing a scholarship essay about begin, reacted with an excess of acetic anhydride. A small amount of a strong acid is write an essay tanabe, used as a catalyst which speeds up the Writing a scholarship essay yourself, reaction. In this experiment, phosphoric acid will be used as the catalyst. The excess acetic acid will be quenched with the addition of water. The aspirin product is not very soluble in water so the aspirin product will precipitate when water is added. The synthesis reaction of aspirin is shown below: This laboratory exercise aims to: 1. to synthesize acetylsalicylic acid from How to make a assignment, salicylic acid by nucleophilic acyl substitution; and 2. to describe and explain the differences in the properties of acetylsalicylic acid and salicylic acid by a scholarship essay about yourself begin, simple chemical tests. A. Statement! Schematic Diagram.

1 gram salicylic acid in 125-mL Erlenmeyer flask. + 3-mL acetic anhydride + 1 drop 85% phosphoric acid. – heat in steam bath for 15 mins. + 20-mL ice cold H2O. -place in an ice bath. -perform suction filtration. — wash several times — transfer crystals to pre-weight watch glass air dry weight dry aspirin calculate % yield crude aspirin set aside small quantity for MP determination transfer the rest to 125-mL Eflask.

+ 95% ethanol dropwise swirl until almost all dissolves. + cold dH2O dropwise until almost all crystals appear cool flask in Writing about begin a cool bath suction filtration calculate % recovery. residue filtrate wash crystals with small portions of cold H2O – transfer crystals to pre-weight watch glass air dry weight dry aspirin calculate % recovery transfer aspirin to vial label determine the MP of crude and recrystallized aspirin. Characterization of Aspirin: Reaction with KMnO4 : 5 drops dilute, slightly acidic KMnO4 in test tube.

+ pinch of the sample. – warm the tube in water bath for 5 mins. – examine mixture. Reaction with FeCl3 : pinch of the sample in test tube. + 3 drops 2.5% aqueous FeCl3. Differentiation of the synthesized acetylsalycylic acid from commercially available aspirin: pinch of the homework organizing your, sample test tube.

— repeat process but add 5 drops iodine solution. Figure 11.1. Suction filtration set-up. C. Chemical Data Sheet. Table 11.1 Chemical data sheet for Writing essay, the synthesis of aspirin. Name and structure of the Personal statement samples, reagents. Functions in the exercise.

Starting material a white powder-like substance with an MP of 159°C and a density of 1.44g/cm3 Skin and eyes irritants In case of contact, immediately flush skin with plenty of water acetic anhydride. Converts salicylic acid’s hydroxyl group into an acetyl group a colorless liquid with a density of 1.08 g/cm3 Corrosive and flammable Keep away from heat. Wear gloves, eye protection and face protection phosphoric acid. Serves as the catalyst a colorless viscous liquid with a density of 1.88 g/cm3 and a boiling point of 158°C Extremely corrosive. Avoid direct contact. Wear chemical protective clothing. Used for the recrystallization a colorless liquid with a melting point of 114°C and a density of 789.00kg/m3 Skin and essay about, eyes irritants. Long term use can result to serious liver damage Keep away from heat. Wear gloves, eye protection and face protection KMnO4.

Differentiating agent a purple liquid. Highly explosive when reacted with concentrated sulfuric acid In case of contact, immediately flush skin with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes FeCl3. For the characterization of the synthesized aspirin and commercial aspirin Brown liquid with a molar mass of 162.20g/mol, a boiling point of 306 °C and How to make a assignment bibliography, a density of Writing yourself begin 2.9g/mL Corrosive, toxic and Personal, acidic. Flush skin with water in Writing case of direct contact. Table 11.2. Description of reagents. DESCRIPTION salicylic acid white, powder-like substance acetic anhydride clear liquid with strong odor phosphoric acid clear, colorless liquid with strong odor 95% ethanol clear, colorless liquid with strong odor KMnO4 purple liquid FeCl3 brown liquid Iodine solution clear liquid. Table 11.3. Preparation of Aspirin.

Salicylic acid + acetic anhydride + 85% phosphoric acid. salicylic acid was dissolved. Mixture at room temperature crystals were formed. Mixture after ice bath more crystals were formed. Suction Filtration: residue filtrate.

fine, white crystals. clear liquid with small amounts of crystals at the bottom. fine white crystals. Table 11.4. Recrystallization of Aspirin. Crude aspirin + ethanol. dissolution of most crystals occurred.

Mixture during cooling. crystals were formed. Mixture after cooling. more crystals were formed. fine, white crystals. Table 11.5. Recovery data of Hooks an essay recrystallized aspirin. Weight of Writing yourself watch glass + filter paper (g) Weight of watch glass + filter paper + product (g)

Weight of product (g) Table 11. 6. Melting point determination. MELTING POINT RANGE (°C) Table 11.7. Differentiation of starting material from the product TEST.

disappearance of violet color and formation of brown precipitate the solution remained purple. the solution remained brown and Personal samples, not all of the sample dissolved the solution became darker shade of brown and not all of the a scholarship essay about yourself begin, sample dissolved. Table 11.8. Differentiation of synthesized acetylsalicylic acid from commercially-available aspirin by iodine test SAMPLE. Synthesized acetylsalicylic acid. all of the sample dissolved and the solution is turbid. Commercially- available aspirin. all of the sample dissolved and the solution is turbid.

V. Sample Calculations. 1.0g SA ( 1 mol SA/ 138.16 g) ( 1 mol ASA/1 mol SA) ( 180.21g/ 1 mol ASA) = 1.30g. 3.00 mL AA ( 1.08g AA/ 1mL)( 1 mol AA/ 102.11g)(1 mol ASA/ 1 mol AA) (180. 21g/ 1 mol ASA) = 5.72g. % yield = Actual yield/ Theoretical yield X 100% = 0.78g/ 1.30g X 100% = 60% % recovery = Recovery yield / Actual yield X 100% = 0.457g/ 0.78g X 100% = 59% VI. Results and Discussion. In this exercise, the goal was to produce acetylsalicylic acid through the organic synthesis from the reaction of salicylic acid to acetic anhydride, the starting materials.

Instead of Writing entrance days using acetic acid, acetic anhydride was used as solvent since the Writing a scholarship essay, anhydride reacting with water to form acetic acid tends to drive the reaction to Phd thesis the right. It results from the elimination of a molecule of water from two molecules of acetic acid (see Fig. Writing A Scholarship! 11.2). Figure 11.3 below shows the balanced chemical reaction of the synthesis of acetylsalicylic acid. Figure 11.2. Structure of samples Acetic Anhydride. Figure 11.3. The balanced chemical reaction of the formation of aspirin. Because the reaction is slow in pure acetic anhydride, the a scholarship essay yourself begin, catalyst, commonly strong acids like phosphoric acid was used for the reaction. According to Le Chatelier’s principle, the make bibliography, presence of excess acetic anhydride forces the equilibrium towards the desired product, which in this case is the aspirin.

In addition to this, the catalysts were also used to ensure that side reactions, which may cause the percentage yield to increase, will be avoided. The reaction behind the synthesis is nucleophilic acyl substitution. According to McMurry (2000), nucleophilic acyl substitution happens when the initially formed intermediate expels one of the substitutes originally bonded to the carbonyl carbon leading to the formation of a new carbonyl compound. In this experiment, the specific nucleophilic acyl substitution is Writing begin, esterification. How To Make A Assignment Bibliography! It occurs when a carboxylic acid in salicylic acid and an alcohol combine in a reaction to produce an yourself ester. Figure 11.4. Mechanisms on the formation of aspirin. Phosphoric acid protonates the carbonyl oxygen atom (C=O) of the anhydride to make it more prone to nucleophilic attacks. It gives the anhydride a positive charge thus, making it more susceptible to Writing essay for college entrance nucleophilic attacks. The nucleophilic hydroxyl group of salicylic acid attacks the electron deficient acetic anhydride resulting to a tetrahedral intermediate.

The hydroxyl group (-OH) attached to the electrophilic carbon removed the hydrogen as proton thus donating the electron to Writing essay begin form a double bond (C=O).The loss of the proton regenerates the phosphoric acid and thus, producing acetylsalicylic acid. To enhance the synthesis reaction, addition of heat and water after heating were done. An Essay! The synthesis of reaction is essay yourself, favored by heating the mixture because it speeds up the dissolution process of Phd thesis salicylic acid and increases its solubility as well. Because this specific reaction is an endothermic process, addition of heat would favor a forward reaction resulting to the formation of Writing essay about yourself products. Aside from dyslexia, that, nucleophile was completely facilitated by the addition of water after heating. Water was used in order to provide medium for further nucleophilic substitution. The theoretical yield obtained is 1.30 grams after knowing that salicylic acid is the limiting reagent. The actual yield obtained is 0.78 grams thus, the % yield is 60% . This results are relatively low because of possible sources of error such as loss of product in the filter paper because of prolonged air dying, decomposition to acetic acid in solution so there wasn’t a complete conversion of reagents and insufficient heating. Upon obtaining the crude aspirin, recrytallization was done. This is performed to remove the traces of impurities.

After cooling to room temperature and immersing on an ice cold water bath, suction filtration method was done to separate the about begin, filtrate from the residue which contains the recrystallized products. Suction filtration is the most practical technique to use when fast filtration of mixture is desired. Writing Essay For College! It employs vacuum which can aid in the passage of Writing essay begin filtrate through the filter paper (Basic Organic Chemistry: Laboratory Manual, 2012). Bibliography! In addition, since aspirin is an ester, it should not be recrystallized from Writing a scholarship about, hot water because it will allow the. crude sample to be hydrolyzed and How to make a assignment bibliography, yield undesirable products.

The % recovery obtained is 59%. After performing the synthesis of Writing a scholarship begin aspirin from salicylic acid, the verification of the identity and purity of the product through melting point determination was also performed. In differentiating salicylic acid from the synthesized product, FeCl3 test and KMnO4 test were conducted. For the FeCl3 test, the positive will give a change from yellow-brown solution to a violet colored complex. For this test, the result is College homework, positive because of the presence of phenol in Writing essay about it. The oxygen atoms of the acid group –COOH, and homework your, of the -OH group on the salicylic acid together can form a complex with Fe(H2O)6 +3. The test result on aspirin is negative because iron complex cannot be formed due to the absence of Writing a scholarship essay about a hydroxyl group attached to benzene. For the dyslexia, KMnO4 test, a positive result was obtained from the synthesized aspirin as seen by the disappearance of violet color and formation of the brown precipitate.

Theoretically, salicylic acid would give a positive result because of the presence of hydroxyl group (-OH). Recalling the reactions in a scholarship essay about yourself alcohols, KMnO4 was used to detect the presence of dyslexia primary and secondary alcohols. Since the Writing a scholarship yourself begin, phenol group is absent in the synthesized aspirin, a negative result should be obtained. Another test was conducted to differentiate the synthesized apirin from the commercially-available aspirin. Unfortunately, same results was obtained from both samples. Ideally, the commercially-available aspirin will give the positive result of the solution turning blue or violet because of the presence of strach to the commercially-available aspirin because pharmaceutical companies add starch to dyslexia tablet medicines to give them its characteristic shapes. And the iodine test is use to detect the presence of a scholarship essay begin starch in a sample. Lastly, the melting point determination was conducted. One way of identifying a substance is through its melting point. The range of the melting point can give one an idea on the purity of the sample.

The theoretical melting point range of aspirin is 128-137°C. In this experiment, the obtained melting point range of How to of the crude aspirin is 106- 112°C and for the recrystallized aspirin, it is 114-118°C. Yourself! The results of melting point determination means that the How to write an essay for college scholarship, samples have impurities in Writing a scholarship essay about yourself begin it. Narrow difference in the melting point range of the sample and the theoretical melting point range means that the substance is pure because of the uniform forces present in the molecules. When the range is wide, it means that the sample contains impurities. Phd Thesis! In this exercise, melting point determination is done. And the results show that it has a wide difference from the theoretical melting point range of aspirin. Thus it can be inferred from the Writing essay about yourself begin, results that the sample is not pure. VII.Summary and Conclusion. Synthesis of How to make a assignment bibliography organic compounds involves guidelines and steps that should be followed. The first one is the establishment of the starting materials which is in Writing a scholarship about yourself this are the salicylic acid and acetic anhydride together with the phosphoric acid that served as the catalyst for the reaction.

The synthesis of aspirin involved the acid-catalyzed nuclephilic acyl substitution. The specific nucleophilic acyl substitution for this experiment is samples, esterification. It happens when a carboxylic acid from the salicylic acid and an alcohol combine in a reaction therefore producing an ester. In this experiment, phosphoric acid was used as a catalyst to a scholarship essay about yourself hasten the reaction between the salicylic acid and acetic anhydride. Heat and Personal samples, addition of water was also done for effiecient production of the desired product.

The percent yield obtained for this experiment is Writing a scholarship, 69%. Write An Essay For College Scholarship Kelly Tanabe! Low %yield can be caused by Writing essay about, insufficient heating and that the product was lost in the filter paper because of prolonged air drying. The next step that was done was the recrystallization of the Writing essay, crude sample to Writing obtain a more purified organic compound. Recrystallization was done by College, suction filtration. Essay Begin! The last step for this experiment is the verification and differentiation of the samples. Through the a assignment bibliography, KMnO4 test, it was verified that the synthesized product was indeed to be acetylsalicylic acid or most commonly known as aspirin. Other tests such as iodine test and FeCl3, unfortunately did not give the a scholarship essay about yourself begin, theoretical results. Aspirin timeline. (2013).

Retrieved on October 5, 2013 from Writing essay for college entrance, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/healthnews/8185164/Aspirin-timeline.html. History of Aspirin. (2013). Essay Yourself Begin! Retrieved on essay for college entrance days, October 5, 2013 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_aspirin. Institute of Chemistry. (2012). Basic Organic Chemistry Laboratory Manual. University of the Philippines Los Banos College Laguna. 72-75. Material safety data sheet. (2013). Writing Essay! Retrieved on October 6, 2013 from http://www.inchem.com.ph/productpages/fecl3_msds.pdf. MSDS for potassium permanganate. (2013).

Retrieved on October 6, 2013 from http://www.sciencelab.com/msdsId=9927406. McMurry, John. (2000). Organic Chemistry. 7th Edition USA. Phosphoric acid. (2013) retrieved on October 6, 2013 from http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/chemicals/chem_profiles/phosphoric.html. Rodriguez, E.B. Statement! (1997). Writing Yourself Begin! Basic Principles of Organic Chemistry. UP Open University: Diliman Quezon City . Bibliography! 295 – 336. IX. Remarks and essay yourself begin, Recommendation.

The synthesis of organic compounds is indeed very helpful in chemistry and through this process, one can have a glimpse on how chemical processes works in real life. The researcher recommends the use of other tests in order to Personal statement obtain more accurate results in the differentiation of the synthesized aspirin from the commercially-available aspirin. University/College: University of California. Type of Writing a scholarship essay paper: Thesis/Dissertation Chapter. Date: 21 April 2016. Let us write you a custom essay sample on Synthesis of Acetylsalicylic Acid.

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Analysis of Keats#8217; #8220;To Autumn#8221; Essay Sample. The use of Writing a scholarship, rhetorical devices in John Keats’ “To Autumn” We all know that the autumn is probably the most ambivalent season of the year. People have more or less fixed associations with the statement, other three seasons, but this is not true for autumn. Summer is a scholarship essay about, usually seen as the How to an essay for college scholarship, warmest time of the year, the time of holidays and relaxation. Winter on the other hand is cold and hard but also the Writing about yourself begin, time of feasts like Christmas – a time which brings whole families together for Writing essay a while. Spring finally is the season of hope; the nature wakes up from its hibernation, it gets warmer and people discover new or almost forgotten feelings for each other.

But autumn differs from the other seasons. Almost nobody has a fixed idea of how an autumn can or will turn out. It may be a wonderful season full of warmth and colorful leaves, but it can also be cold and rainy, the season of poor harvests and depression because of the a scholarship about begin, ending summer. John Keats describes this season in his poem “To Autumn” in a very positive, idealized way which will be pointed out in this essay. The whole poem is full of rhetorical devices. The first one is the make a assignment bibliography, poem’s name, “To Autumn”, which is a personification in itself, because here the autumn is addressed like as if it was a person. Of course a poem can only be dedicated to Writing yourself begin, a human being and not to a nonhuman entity like the autumn.

On the other hand the periphrasis “season of mists and mellow fruitfulness” (1) makes clear that the autumn is not a human being and creates a picture of a very shady and opaque season. This idea is even underlined by the consonance “mists and mellow” (1). Maybe this description could be a sign for the autumn’s ambivalence because if something is at least to some extent hidden in the mist, it cannot be clearly identified and thus can be something nice or something less positive – like the autumn itself. However the personification in the title is by kelly far not the a scholarship essay about yourself begin, only personification of the autumn. The season is described as the sun’s “close bosom friend” (3) who is “conspiring with him” (4). So both, the season and How to write an essay scholarship the sun are personified. They are described as good friends who are hatching up plans about ripening all kinds of fruits. Their accomplishments are listed one after the other by the use of a parallelism.

Each good deed is preceded by the word “to” (3), (5), (7), (8). First the friends “load and bless with fruit the vines” (4). In this metaphor the word order is also inverted. Begin. After that they “bend with apples the moss’d cottage-trees” (5). This is once again an Writing entrance, inversion and a vivid metaphor. The later rhetoric device can also be found in the next lines where the about begin, autumn and the sun “fill all fruit with ripeness” (6), “swell the gourd” and “plump the hazel shells” (7). The sun and the autumn also provide the bees with “more, and still more” flowers. Here an epiphora is used. In the first stanza the autumn is described as a season of superabundance: there are enormous amounts of apples and vines, huge gourds and sweet hazelnuts.

The bees have so many flowers that their cells are overflown with honey which makes them “think warm days will never cease” (10). This autumn rather resembles the summer and does not give any hint for an upcoming winter. The next stanza starts with an write an essay for college tanabe, apostrophe and the rhetorical question “Who hath not seen thee oft amid thy store?” directly adressed to the autumn (12). Throughout the rest of the stanza several apostrophes can be found: “thee” (14), “thy” (15), “thou” (19), “thy” (20) “thou” (22). In addition to that a simile is used in order to essay begin, compare the autumn with a “gleaner” (19). So the autumn is less seen and described as a season but more as a human harvester whom the speaker addresses. The autumn might even be a woman because the autumn’s “hair [is] soft-lifted by the winnowing wind” (15). This personification might create an image of a woman in some readers’ minds, because men usually have shorter hair which could not easily be lifted by the wind. The direct comparison of the autumn with a gleaner is not the only hint which creates the impression that the season is statement, a kind of a harvester. Another hint is the Writing a scholarship essay, alliteration of the “winnowing wind” (15). Here the wind, being a part of the How to make bibliography, season, is Writing begin, doing work, harvesters would normally have to do.

The next sign is the autumn’s possession of a “hook” (17), an important tool for a harvester. This is once again a personification and College homework organizing your simultaneously it could be another little hint at essay begin the autumn’s gender. If by statement “hook” a scythe is meant, then this is an argument against a female autumn because the introduction of the scythe in the British agriculture ended the woman’s partaking in harvesting. Yourself Begin. The reason is simple – a man’s muscle power was needed to work with the scythe (Morgan 13). If on the other hand the Personal, “hook” is a sickle, a woman could also be the harvester. Before the introduction of the scythe, both genders were harvesting together using sickles which did not demand much muscle power from the a scholarship about begin, workers. . The autumn’s work ethic as a harvester is very conspicuous too. Instead of operating the cyder-press fast, the autumn works rather slowly and with a “patient look” (21). It is “sitting careless” (14), not worrying about Hooks how to Writing a scholarship begin, perform the work as fast as possible. Bibliography. The autumn is even “asleep, drowsed with the fume of poppies” (17). It “spares” (18) the flowers instead of Writing a scholarship about begin, picking them.

In short, the Phd thesis, autumn’s harvesting is not time or profit-oriented, but a slow and hardly noticeable process. The autumn is Writing essay yourself, hesitating to do its work as a harvester. A Assignment. The third and last stanza finally starts with the speaker’s rhetorical question about the about, “songs of Spring” (23). Immediately he tells the autumn not to think about them, because it has its own “music too” (24). This music is the theme of the entire stanza. However this music is not a happy one; it is rather a music of loss and regret.

An example is the personification of the Phd thesis dyslexia, gnats which “mourn” (27) in a “wailful choir” (27). They are not the Writing a scholarship essay, only animals which seem to be in a depressed mood. This is also true for the “lambs” that are “load bleat[ing]” (30), which is expressed by the use of an alliteration. The swallows seem to be feeling that the winter is coming and the autumn is ending as well. That is why they are “gathering” (33) and preparing themselves for the flight towards some warmer regions in the south.

Just like the scholarship kelly tanabe, autumn itself, the particular day is ending too. A Scholarship About Yourself. Its end is described in the personification and metaphor “soft-dying day” (25) and even the wind “lives or dies” (29) and the river sallows are “sinking” (29). All these expressions and images of death and decay together with the Writing for college entrance days, sounds of mourning and complaining create a dark and depressed atmosphere – a contrast to the happiness from the essay about begin, first two stanzas. Make. John Keats’ “To Autumn” is a typical Romantic poem. It not only describes, but also idealizes the nature and does not contain any signs of Writing essay about begin, a changing society, industrialization or enlightenment.

The first two stanzas are great examples for the landscape and nature poetry which was common during the Romantic Period. In the first stanza the autumn is described as a generous character, providing all kinds of fruits and vegetables with ripeness and creating a superabundant landscape. In the second stanza the autumn is a hesitating harvester who is sparing the nature instead of rushing in, harvesting fast and changing the homework organizing, landscape this way dramatically. The third and last stanza however contains a mix of Writing essay about begin, nature poetry and melancholy. The melancholy comes in when it is clear that the autumn is not lasting forever and the good times are just about to end. The image of the birds preparing for flying away is a very powerful one. So the Hooks, reader is more or less painfully reminded about the Writing a scholarship essay about yourself begin, transience of time. Works Cited List. Morgan, Kenneth.

The Birth of Industrial Britain: Social Change, 1750-1850. 1st ed. London: Longman, 2004. Print. Is this the statement, perfect essay for you? Save time and Writing a scholarship begin order Analysis of Keats#8217; #8220;To Autumn#8221; essay editing for only $13.9 per Writing essay for college, page. Top grades and quality guaranteed! Relevant essay suggestions for Analysis of Keats#8217; #8220;To Autumn#8221; The poem we are analyzing is called #8220;To Autumn#8221; by a poet named John Keats. The poem is an essay yourself, Ode to autumn. It#8217;s a very serious, thoughtful poem that praises#8230; #8220;Ode to Autumn#8221; does convey a #8220;oneness with nature#8221; through sensuous images and techniques.

Alliteration, personification, imagery, similes, rhetorical questions, enjambment and positive connotations contained in this poem are all#8230; Simplicity is Hooks to start, Power: An Analysis of the Poem #8220;When Autumn Came#8221; by Faiz Ahmed Faiz. Being in a country where there are only two seasons, we can only rely on images of winter, spring, or autumn on postcards, movies or television shows. Yourself Begin. Through these aids,#8230; My Favorite Season Of The Year Is Autumn. There are three main reasons why it is my favorite season. During this season weather is great for football, hunting season and the fall foliage is beautiful. During fall the#8230; ?Poetry Analysis on ‘Wind’ by Ted Hughes.

The poem ‘Wind’ by Ted Hughes is about the make, power and the ferocity of wind, the speaker puts forwards how demonic ‘Wind’ can be, it can make everything around him#8230; Ode to the West Wind. Critical Appreciation of Shelley’s Ode to the West Wind. / Bring out the revolutionary zeal of Shelley in the poem Ode to the West Wind. / Critically analyse Shelley’s use#8230;

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Science/Ovarian Cancer term paper 5715. Of all gynecologic malignancies, ovarian cancer continues to have the. highest mortality and is the Writing about most difficult to diagnose. Hooks To Start? In the United States. female population, ovarian cancer ranks fifth in absolute mortality among. cancer related deaths (13,000/yr). Writing A Scholarship Begin? In most reported cases, ovarian cancer, when first diagnosed is in stages III or IV in about 60 to 70% of Phd thesis dyslexia, patients.

which further complicates treatment of the disease (Barber, 3). Early detection in ovarian cancer is Writing yourself, hampered by the lack of How to bibliography, appropriate. tumor markers and clinically, most patients fail to develop significant. symptoms until they reach advanced stage disease. The characteristics. of ovarian cancer have been studied in primary tumors and in established.

ovarian tumor cell lines which provide a reproducible source of tumor material. Among the major clinical problems of ovarian cancer, malignant progression, rapid emergence of drug resistance, and associated cross-resistance remain. unresolved. Ovarian cancer has a high frequency of metastasis yet generally. remains localized within the peritoneal cavity. Tumor development has been. associated with aberrant, dysfunctional expression and/or mutation of.

various genes. This can include oncogene overexpression, amplification or. mutation, aberrant tumor suppressor expression or mutation. Also, subversion. of host antitumor immune responses may play a role in the pathogenesis of.

cancer (Sharp, 77). Ovarian clear cell adenocarcinoma was first described by Peham in essay about yourself 1899 as. hypernephroma of the write scholarship kelly tanabe ovary because of a scholarship about begin, its resemblance to renal cell carcinoma. By 1939, Schiller noted a histologic similarity to mesonephric tubules and. classified these tumors as mesonephromas. Dyslexia? In 1944, Saphir and Writing essay yourself begin, Lackner described. two cases of hypernephroid carcinoma of the ovary and proposed clear cell adenocarcinoma as an alternative term. Clear cell tumors of the ovary are now. generally considered to be of mullerian and in Writing essay days the genital tract of mullerian origin. A number of examples of clear cell adenocarcinoma have been reported to arise. from the epithelium of an endometriotic cyst (Yoonessi, 289).

Occasionally, a renal. cell carcinoma metastasizes to the ovary and Writing essay begin, may be confused with a primary clear. Ovarian clear cell adenocarcinoma (OCCA) has been recognized as a distinct. histologic entity in the World Health Organization (WHO) classification of ovarian. tumors since 1973 and is the most lethal ovarian neoplasm with an overall five year. survival of only 34% (Kennedy, 342). Clear cell adenocarcinoma, like most ovarian. cancers, originates from the bibliography ovarian epithelium which is a single layer of cells found on. the surface of the ovary. Patients with ovarian clear cell adenocarcinoma are typically.

above the age of Writing a scholarship about yourself begin, 30 with a median of 54 which is similar to that of College organizing, ovarian epithelial. cancer in general. OCCA represents approximately 6% of ovarian cancers and bilateral. ovarian involvement occurs in less that 50% of patients even in advanced cases. The association of OCCA and endometriosis is well documented (De La Cuesta, 243). This was confirmed by Kennedy et al who encountered histologic or intraoperative.

evidence of endometriosis in 45% of their study patients. Transformation. from endometriosis to clear cell adenocarcinoma has been previously demonstrated in. sporadic cases but was not observed by Kennedy et al. Hypercalcemia occurs in a. significant percentage of patients with OCCA.

Patients with advanced disease are more. typically affected than patients with nonmetastatic disease. Patients with OCCA are also. more likely to have Stage I disease than are patients with ovarian epithelial cancer in. general (Kennedy, 348). Histologic grade has been useful as an initial prognostic determinant in some studies. of epithelial cancers of the ovary. The grading of Writing a scholarship, ovarian clear cell adenocarcinoma has.

been problematic and is complicated by for college days, the multiplicity of histologic patterns found in. the same tumor. Writing Essay Yourself Begin? Similar problems have been found in attempted grading of clear cell. adenocarcinoma of the endometrium (Disaia, 176). Essay? Despite these problems, tumor. grading has been attempted but has failed to demonstrate prognostic significance.

However, collected data suggest that low mitotic activity and a scholarship begin, a predominance of clear. cells may be favorable histologic features (Piver, 136). Risk factors for OCCA and an essay, ovarian cancer in general are much less clear than for. other genital tumors with general agreement on two risk factors: nulliparity and family. history. There is a higher frequency of carcinoma in Writing a scholarship essay about yourself unmarried women and in married.

women with low parity. Gonadal dysgenesis in children is associated with a higher risk. of developing ovarian cancer while oral contraceptives are associated with a decreased. risk. Genetic and candidate host genes may be altered in susceptible families. Among. those currently under investigation is BRCA1 which has been associated with an.

increased susceptibility to breast cancer. Approximately 30% of ovarian adenocarcinomas. express high levels of HER-2/neu oncogene which correlates with a poor prognosis. (Altcheck, 375-376). Mutations in host tumor suppresser gene p53 are found in 50% of.

ovarian carcinomas. There also appears to be a racial predilection, as the vast majority. of cases are seen in Caucasians (Yoonessi, 295). Considerable variation exists in the gross appearance of statement, ovarian clear cell. adenocarcinomas and they are generally indistinguishable from other epithelial ovarian.

carcinomas. They could be cystic, solid, soft, or rubbery, and may also contain. hemorrhagic and mucinous areas (O'Donnell, 250). Microscopically, clear cell. carcinomas are characterized by the presence of variable proportions of clear and a scholarship about yourself begin, hobnail. cells. The former contain abundant clear cytoplasm with often centrally located nuclei, while the write an essay kelly latter show clear or pink cytoplasm and bizarre basal nuclei with atypical. cytoplasmic intraluminal projections.

The cellular arrangement may be tubulo acinar, papillary, or solid, with the great majority displaying a mixture of these patterns. The. hobnail and clear cells predominate with tubular and Writing about yourself begin, solid forms, respectively (Barber, Clear cell adenocarcinoma tissue fixed with alcohol shows a high cytoplasmic. glycogen content which can be shown by means of special staining techniques. Abundant extracellular and rare intracellular neutral mucin mixed with sulfate and. carboxyl group is usually present. The clear cells are recognized histochemically and. ultrastructurally (short and blunt microvilli, intercellular tight junctions and desmosomes, free ribosomes, and lamellar endoplasmic reticulum). The ultrastructure of hobnail and.

clear cells resemble those of the similar cells seen in clear cell carcinomas of your, the. remainder of the female genital tract (O'Brien, 254). A variation in patterns of histology. is seen among these tumors and frequently within the essay about yourself begin same one. Whether both tubular components with hobnail cells and the solid part with clear cells.

are required to establish a diagnosis or the scholarship tanabe presence of just one of the Writing about yourself patterns is. sufficient has not been clearly established. Homework Your? Fortunately, most tumors exhibit a mixture of. these components. Writing Essay Begin? Benign and borderline counterparts of clear cell ovarian. adenocarcinomas are theoretical possibilities. Yoonessi et al reported that nodal. metastases could be found even when the to start disease appears to be grossly limited to Writing begin the. pelvis (Yoonessi, 296).

Examination of retroperitoneal nodes is essential to Personal samples allow for. more factual staging and carefully planned adjuvant therapy. Surgery remains the backbone of treatment and generally consists of removal of the. uterus, tubes and ovaries, possible partial omentectomy, and nodal biopsies. The.

effectiveness and value of Writing a scholarship essay, adjuvant radiotherapy and chemotherapy has not been clearly. demonstrated. Therefore, in patients with unilateral encapsulated lesions and. histologically proven uninvolvement of the Phd thesis dyslexia contralateral ovary, omentum, and biopsied. nodes, a case can be made for (a)no adjuvant therapy after complete surgical removal. and (b) removal of only the diseased ovary in an occasional patient who may be young. and desirous of preserving her reproductive capacity (Altchek, 97).

In the more adv- anced stages, removal of the uterus, ovaries, omentum, and as much tumor as possible. followed by pelvic radiotherapy (if residual disease is limited to the pelvis) or. chemotherapy must be considered. The chemotherapeutic regimens generally involve. adriamycin, alkylating agents, and about yourself, cisPlatinum containing combinations (Barber, 442).

OCCA is of epithelial origin and often contains mixtures of Personal statement, other epithelial tumors. such as serous, mucinous, and endometrioid. Clear cell adenocarcinoma is characterized. by large epithelial cells with abundant cytoplasm. A Scholarship Begin? Because these tumors sometimes. occur in association with endometriosis or endometrioid carcinoma of the ovary and.

resemble clear cell carcinoma of the endometrium, they are now thought to be of. mullerian duct origin and variants of endometrioid adenocarcinoma. Clear cell tumors of. the ovary can be predominantly solid or cystic. For College Entrance? In the solid neoplasm, the essay about clear cells are. arranged in sheets or tubules. In the cystic form, the neoplastic cells line the spaces. Five-year survival is to start, approximately 50% when these tumors are confined to a scholarship essay yourself the ovaries, but these tumors tend to be aggressive and spread beyond the ovary which tends to make.

5-year survival highly unlikely (Altchek, 416). Some debate continues as to whether clear cell or mesonephroid carcinoma is a. separate clinicopathological entity with its own distinctive biologic behavior and natural. history or a histologic variant of endometrioid carcinoma. In an bibliography effort to a scholarship about yourself characterize. clear cell adenocarcinoma, Jenison et al compared these tumors to the most common of. the epithelial malignancies, the serous adenocarcinoma (SA). Writing Days? Histologically determined.

endometriosis was strikingly more common among patients with OCCA than with SA. Other observations by Jenison et al suggest that the biologic behavior of clear cell. adenocarcinoma differs from a scholarship about yourself that of SA. They found Stage I tumors in 50% of the. observed patient population as well as a lower incidence of Hooks an essay, bilaterality in OCCA. (Jenison, 67-69). Additionally, it appears that OCCA is characteristically larger than. SA, possibly explaining the greater frequency of symptoms and signs at presentation. There is controversy regarding talc use causing ovarian cancer.

Until recently, most. talc powders were contaminated with asbestos. Writing About? Conceptually, talcum powder on the. perineum could reach the ovaries by absorption through the cervix or vagina. Since. talcum powders are no longer contaminated with asbestos, the risk is probably no longer. important (Barber, 200). The high fat content of whole milk, butter, and meat products. has been implicated with an increased risk for Personal statement ovarian cancer in general.

The Centers for Disease Control compared 546 women with ovarian cancer to 4,228. controls and reported that for women 20 to 54 years of age, the use of Writing a scholarship essay about, oral. contraceptives reduced the risk of ovarian cancer by 40% and the risk of ovarian cancer. decreased as the duration of oral contraceptive use increased. Even the use of Personal, oral. contraceptives for three months decreased the risk. A Scholarship About Yourself Begin? The protective effect of oral. contraceptives is to How to write an essay for college scholarship reduce the relative risk to 0.6 or to decrease the incidence of disease. by 40%.

There is begin, a decreased risk as high as 40% for How to bibliography women who have had four or. more children as compared to nulliparous women. A Scholarship Essay Begin? There is an increase in the incidence. of ovarian cancer among nulliparous women and a decrease with increasing parity. The. incessant ovulation theory proposes that continuous ovulation causes repeated trauma. to the for college scholarship kelly ovary leading to the development of ovarian cancer. Incidentally, having two or. more abortions compared to never having had an abortion decreases one's risk of. developing ovarian cancer by a scholarship essay about begin, 30% (Coppleson, 25-28). It is commonly accepted that cancer results from a series of genetic alterations that.

disrupt normal cellular growth and differentiation. It has been proposed that genetic. changes causing cancer occur in two categories of normal cellular genes, proto- oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes. Genetic changes in proto-oncogenes facilitate. the transformation of a normal cell to Personal samples a malignant cell by production of an altered or. overexpressed gene product. Such genetic changes include mutation, translocation, or. amplification of proto-oncogenes Tumor suppressor genes are proposed to prevent.

cancer. Inactivation or loss of these genes contributes to development of cancer by the. lack of Writing a scholarship yourself begin, a functional gene product. This may require mutations in both alleles of a tumor. suppressor gene. These genes function as regulatory inhibitors of cell proliferation, such. as a DNA transcription factor, or a cell adhesion molecule. Loss of these functions.

could result in your abnormal cell division or gene expression, or increased ability of cells in. tissues to detach. Cancer such as OCCA most likely results from the dynamic interaction. of several genetically altered proto-oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes (Piver, 64- Until recently, there was little evidence that the origin of essay about yourself begin, ovarian was genetic. Before. 1970, familial ovarian cancer had been reported in only five families. A familial cancer.

registry was established at Roswell Park Cancer Institute in 1981 to document the. number of cases occurring in the United States and to study the mode of inheritance. Organizing? If. a genetic autosomal dominant transmission of the a scholarship yourself disease can be established, counseling. for prophylactic oophorectomy at an appropriate age may lead to a decrease in Personal the death. rate from ovarian cancer in such families. The registry at Roswell Park reported 201 cases of ovarian cancer in about yourself 94 families in. 1984. From 1981 through 1991, 820 families and 2946 cases had been observed. Familial ovarian cancer is not a rare occurrence and may account for 2 to 5% of all cases.

of ovarian cancer. Three conditions that are associated with familial ovarian cancer are. (1) site specific, the samples most common form, which is restricted to ovarian cancer, and Writing essay about begin, (2) breast/ovarian cancer with clustering of ovarian and breast cases in extended pedigrees. (Altchek, 229-230). One characteristic of How to a assignment, inherited ovarian cancer is that it occurs at a. significantly younger age than the non-inherited form. Cytogenetic investigations of sporadic (non-inherited) ovarian tumors have revealed. frequent alterations of chromosomes 1,3,6, and 11.

Many proto-oncogenes have been. mapped to these chromosomes, and deletions of segments of chromosomes (particularly. 3p and 6q) in some tumors is consistent with a role for loss of tumor suppressor genes. Recently, a genetic linkage study of familial breast/ovary cancer suggested linkage of. disease susceptibility with the RH blood group locus on chromosome 1p. Allele loss involving chromosomes 3p and 6q as well as chromosomes 11p, 13q, and. 17 have been frequently observed in ovarian cancers. Besides allele loss, point mutations. have been identified in the tumor suppressor gene p53 located on chromosome17p13. Deletions of a scholarship yourself, chromosome 17q have been reported in sporadic ovarian tumors suggesting. a general involvement of How to write an essay for college scholarship, this region in ovarian tumor biology.

Allelic loss of MYB and. ESR genes map on a scholarship about yourself begin, chromosome 6q near the provisional locus for FUCA2, the statement locus for. a-L-fucosidase in Writing about yourself serum. To Start? Low activity of a-L-fucosidase in serum is more prevalent in. ovarian cancer patients. This suggests that deficiency of a-L-fucosidase activity in Writing a scholarship about yourself serum. may be a hereditary condition associated with increased risk for developing ovarian. cancer.

This together with cytogenetic data of Hooks to start an essay, losses of 6q and the allelic losses at Writing a scholarship about begin, 6q. point to the potential importance of chromosome 6q in hereditary ovarian cancer. Activation of normal proto-oncogenes by either mutation, translocation, or gene. amplification to produce altered or overexpressed products is believed to play an. important role in the development of ovarian tumors. Write Scholarship Kelly Tanabe? Activation of several proto- oncogenes (particularly K-RAS, H-RAS, c-MYC, and HER-2/neu) occurs in ovarian. tumors.

However, the essay about significance remains to be determined. It is controversial as to. whether overexpression of the HER-2/neu gene in ovarian cancer is associated with poor. prognosis. In addition to studying proto-oncogenes in How to write for college scholarship tumors, it may be beneficial to. investigate proto-oncogenes in germ-line DNA from members of families with histories. of ovarian cancer (Barber, 323-324).

It is questionable whether inheritance or rare. alleles of the H-RAS proto-oncogene may be linked to susceptibility to ovarian cancers. Diagnosis and Treatment. The early diagnosis of ovarian cancer is a matter of chance and not a triumph of. scientific approach. In most cases, the finding of a pelvic mass is the only available. method of diagnosis, with the exception of functioning tumors which may manifest.

endocrine even with minimal ovarian enlargement. Symptomatology includes vague. abdominal discomfort, dyspepsia, increased flatulence, sense of bloating, particularly. after ingesting food, mild digestive disturbances, and pelvic unrest which may be present. for several months before diagnosis (Sharp, 161-163). There are a great number of imaging techniques that are available. Ultrasounds, particularly vaginal ultrasound, has increased the a scholarship rate of pick-up of How to make a assignment bibliography, early lesions, particularly when the color Doppler method is used. Unfortunately, vaginal sonography. and CA 125 have had an Writing a scholarship about yourself increasing number of false positive examinations.

Pelvic. findings are often minimal and not helpful in making a diagnosis. However, combined. with a high index of suspicion, this may alert the physician to the diagnosis. These pelvic signs include: Mass in the ovarian area. Relative immobility due to fixation of adhesions.

Irregularity of the tumor. Shotty consistency with increased firmness. Tumors in the cul-de-sac described as a handful of an essay, knuckles. Relative insensitivity of the mass. Increasing size under observation. Bilaterality (70% for about ovarian carcinoma versus 5% for benign cases) (Barber, 136) Tumor markers have been particularly useful in make a assignment bibliography monitoring treatment, however, the.

markers have and will probably always have a disadvantage in identifying an early. tumor. To date, only two, human gonadotropin (HCG) and alpha fetoprotein, are. known to be sensitive and specific. The problem with tumor markers as a means of. making a diagnosis is that a tumor marker is developed from a certain volume of tumor. By that time it is Writing essay begin, no longer an early but rather a biologically late tumor (Altchek, 292). Many reports have described murine monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) as potential tools.

for diagnosing malignant ovarian tumors. Entrance Days? Yamada et al attempted to yourself develop a MAb. that can differentiate cells with early malignant change from adjacent benign tumor cells. in cases of borderline malignancy. They developed MAb 12C3 by immunizing mice with. a cell line derived from a human ovarian tumor. The antibody reacted with human. ovarian carcinomas rather than with germ cell tumors.

MAb 12C3 stained 67.7% of. ovarian epithelial malignancies, but exhibited an How to write an essay tanabe extremely low reactivity with other. malignancies. MAb 12C3 detected a novel antigen whose distribution in normal tissue is. restricted. According to Yamada et al, MAb 12C3 will serve as a powerful new tool for. the histologic detection of early malignant changes in borderline epithelial neoplasms. MAb 12C3 may also be useful as a targeting agent for cancer chemotherapy (Yamada, Currently there are several serum markers that are available to help make a diagnosis.

These include CA 125, CEA, DNB/70K, LASA-P, and serum inhibin. A Scholarship About Yourself Begin? Recently the. urinary gonadotropin peptide (UCP) and the collagen-stimulating factor have been. added. Organizing Your? Although the tumor markers have a low specificity and essay yourself begin, sensitivity, they are often.

used in screening for ovarian cancer. A new tumor marker CA125-2 has greater. specificity than CA125. In general, tumor markers have a very limited role in screening. for ovarian cancer. The common epithelial cancer of the Hooks to start ovary is unique in Writing a scholarship essay killing the patient while being, in the tanabe vast majority of the cases, enclosed in the anatomical area where it initially. developed: the peritoneal cavity. Writing A Scholarship About? Even with early localized cancer, lymph node. metastases are not rare in the pelvic or aortic areas.

In most of the cases, death is due to. intraperitoneal proliferation, ascites, protein loss and cachexia. Dyslexia? The concept of. debulking or cytoreductive surgery is currently the dominant concept in treatment. The first goal in debulking surgery is inhibition of debulking surgery is Writing a scholarship essay begin, inhibition of. the vicious cycle of malnutrition, nausea, vomiting, and Hooks to start an essay, dyspepsia commonly found in. patients with mid to advanced stage disease. Cytoreductive surgery enhances the. efficiency of chemotherapy as the survival curve of the patients whose largest residual. mass size was, after surgery, below the 1.5 cm limit is the same as the curve of Writing a scholarship, the.

patients whose largest metastatic lesions were below the 1.5 cm limit at Writing, the outset. The aggressiveness of the debulking surgery is a key question surgeons must face. when treating ovarian cancers. The debulking of very large metastatic masses makes no. sense from the oncologic perspective. As for extrapelvic masses the debulking, even if. more acceptable, remains full of danger and exposes the patient to a heavy handicap.

For these reasons the extra-genital resections have to Writing about yourself begin be limited to statement lymphadenectomy, omentectomy, pelvic abdominal peritoneal resections and rectosigmoid junction. resection. That means that stages IIB and IIC and stages IIIA and IIB are the only true. indications for extrapelvic cytoreductive surgery. Colectomy, ileectomy, splenectomy, segmental hepatectomy are only essay about begin exceptionally indicated if they allow one to perform a. real optimal resection. The standard cytoreductive surgery is the total hysterectomy with.

bilateral salpingoophorectomy. This surgery may be done with aortic and pelvic lymph. node sampling, omentectomy, and, if necessary, resection of the How to make bibliography rectosigmoidal junction. The concept of Writing essay about yourself, administering drugs directly into the peritoneal cavity as therapy of. ovarian cancer was attempted more than three decades ago.

However, it has only been. within the a assignment bibliography last ten years that a firm basis for this method of drug delivery has become. established. The essential goal is to expose the tumor to higher concentrations of drug. for longer periods of Writing a scholarship essay yourself begin, time than is possible with systemic drug delivery. Several agents. have been examined for their efficacy, safety and pharmacokinetic advantage when. administered via the peritoneal route. Cisplatin has undergone the most extensive evaluation for regional delivery. Cisplatin. reaches the systemic compartment in significant concentrations when it is administered.

intraperitoneally. The dose limiting toxicity of organizing your, intraperitoneally administered cisplatin is. nephrotoxicity, neurotoxicity and emesis. The depth of penetration of cisplatin into the. peritoneal lining and tumor following regional delivery is essay, only 1 to 2 mm from the. surface which limits its efficacy.

Thus, the only patients with ovarian cancer who would. likely benefit would be those with very small residual tumor volumes. Overall, approximately 30 to 40% of patients with small volume residual ovarian cancer have. been shown to demonstrate an objective clinical response to cisplatin-based locally. administered therapy with 20 to Writing entrance 30% of a scholarship essay about begin, patients achieving a surgically documented. complete response. How To Scholarship Kelly? As a general rule, patients whose tumors have demonstrated an. inherent resistance to cisplatin following systemic therapy are not considered for. treatment with platinum-based intraperitoneal therapy (Altchek, 444-446).

In patients with small volume residual disease at the time of second look laparotomy, who have demonstrated inherent resistance to platinum-based regimens, alternative. intraperitoneal treatment programs can be considered. Writing Yourself Begin? Other agents include. mitoxantrone, and recombinant alpha-interpheron. Intraperitoneal mitoxanthone has. been shown to for college entrance days have definite activity in small volume residual platinum-refractory ovarian. cancer. Unfortunately, the dose limiting toxicity of the agent is abdominal pain and. adhesion formation, possibly leading to bowel obstruction.

Recent data suggests the. local toxicity of mitoxanthone can be decreased considerably by about, delivering the agent in. Ovarian tumors may have either intrinsic or acquired drug resistance. Many. mechanisms of drug resistance have been described. Expression of the MDR1 gene that. encodes the drug efflux protein known as p-glycoprotein, has been shown to confer the. characteristic multi-drug resistance to clones of some cancers.

The most widely. considered definition of Personal samples, platinum response is response to first-line platinum treatment. and disease free interval. Primary platinum resistance may be defined as any progression. on treatment. Secondary platinum resistance is the absence of progression on primary. platinum-based therapy but progression at the time of platinum retreatment for Writing essay about begin relapse. Second-line chemotherapy for recurrent ovarian cancer is dependent on preferences of. both the Personal samples patient and physician.

Retreatment with platinum therapy appears to yourself offer. significant opportunity for clinical response and palliation but relatively little hope for. long-term cure. Paclitaxel (trade name: Taxol), a prototype of the taxanes, is cytotoxic. to ovarian cancer. Approximately 20% of platinum failures respond to standard doses of. paclitaxel. For College Days? Studies are in progress of Writing a scholarship essay about yourself begin, dose intensification and intraperitoneal. administration (Barber, 227-228). This class of drugs is now thought to represent an. active addition to the platinum analogs, either as primary therapy, in organizing combination with.

platinum, or as salvage therapy after failure of platinum. In advanced stages, there is suggestive evidence of begin, partial responsiveness of OCCA to. radiation as well as cchemotherapy, adriamycin, cytoxan, and cisPlatinum-containing. combinations (Yoonessi, 295). Radiation techniques include intraperitoneal radioactive. gold or chromium phosphate and external beam therapy to the abdomen and pelvis. The. role of radiation therapy in treatment of ovarian canver has diminished in prominence as.

the spread pattern of ovarian cancer and to start an essay, the normal tissue bed involved in the treatment. of this neoplasm make effective radiation therapy difficult. When the Writing a scholarship residual disease. after laparotomy is bulky, radiation therapy is particularly ineffective. If postoperative. radiation is prescribed for Phd thesis dyslexia a patient, it is Writing about, important that theentire abdomen and Personal samples, pelvis are. optimally treated to elicit a response from the tumor (Sharp, 278-280). In the a scholarship last few decades, the aggressive attempt to optimize the treatment of. ovarian clear cell adenocarcinoma and ovarian cancer in general has seen remarkable. improvements in the response rates of patients with advanced stage cancer without.

dramatically improving long-term survival. The promises of new drugs with activity. when platinum agents fail is How to, encouraging and fosters hope that, in the decades to come, the endeavors of surgical and pharmacoogical research will make ovarian cancer an. easily treatable disease. Altchek, A., Deligdisch, L. Essay About Yourself? (1996). Diagnosis and entrance, Management of Ovarian Disorders. New York: Igaku Shoin.

Barber, H. (1993). Ovarian Carcinoma: Etiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment. New York: Coppleson, M. (Ed.). (1981). Gynecologic Oncology (vol. 2). New York: Churchill. Current Clinical Trials Oncology. Writing Essay Yourself? (1996). Green Brook, NJ: Pyros Education.

De La Cuesta, R., Eichorn, J. Personal Statement? (1996). Histologic transformation of benign. endometriosis to early epithelial ovarian cancer. Gynecologic Oncology, 60, 238- Disaia, P, Creasman, W. (1989). Clinical Gynecologic Oncology (3rd ed.). St.

Louis: Jenison, E., Montag, A., Griffiths, T. (1989). clear cell adenocarcinoma of the ovary: a clinical analysis and comparison with serous carcinoma. Gynecologic Oncology, Kennedy, A., Biscotti, C. (1993). Histologic correlates of progression-free interval and. survival in ovarian clear cell adenocarcinoma. Gynecologic Oncology, 50, 334-338. Kennedy, A., Biscotti, C. (1989).

Ovarian clear cell adenocarcinoma. Gynecologic. Oncology, 32, 342-349. O'Brien, M., Schofield, J., Tan, S. (1993). Clear cell epithelial ovarian cancer: Bad. prognosis only in early stages. Gynecologic Oncology, 49, 250-254. O'Donnell, M, Al-Nafussi, A. Writing A Scholarship Yourself Begin? (1995). Intracytoplasmic lumina and mucinous inclusions. in ovarian carcinoma.

Histopathology, 26, 181-184. Piver, S. (Ed.). (1987). Ovarian Malignancies. Write An Essay Scholarship Kelly Tanabe? New York: Churchill Livingstone. Sharp, F., Mason, P., Blackett, T., Berek, J. (1995). A Scholarship Essay Yourself Begin? Ovarian Cancer 3. New York:

Chapman Hall Medical. Yamada, K., Kiyoshi, O. (1995). Monoclonal antibody, Mab 12C3, is a sensitive. immunohistochemical marker of early malignant change in epithelial ovarian tumors. Anatomic Pathology, 103, 288-294. Yoonessi, M., Weldon, D., Sateesh, S. (1984). Clear cell ovarian carcinoma. Journal. of Surgical Oncology, 27, 289-297. Our writers are all Uni graduates able to work effectively on Writing for college entrance, any level under time constraints.

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