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Jan 27, 2018 Monster resume writing services, custom essay order -

anti autism essay Each time you break through the. barrier of Monster resume services silence and speak to me, I know again the first light of Teach writing uk a. childhood Christmas Day, And I am blessed. so that you can see into resume, my eyes, I know that somewhere in the vary. essence of you is a child like any other, And I am blessed. your autistic world, I know that you are not like other children and. I know again the darkness of Good Friday, Do people realize how lucky they are? Do we as one species realize how vulnerable we are? Do families who's worries revolve around picking Little Joey up from practice and what they will do for family vacation this summer realize that they have been blessed with a normal family? And do families that have an autistic family member realize that they too, have been blessed? I have worked with autistic adults and children for two and a half years and in this time I have pondered the Help with chat above questions. I realize that I grew up in a family that didn't know how fortunate we were to have four happy, healthy children. This realization led me to the topic of resume writing services this paper: how does having an autistic family member affect a family?

In order to understand the effects this disability has on a family it is Teach uk, first mandatory to understand the characteristics of an individual living with autism. Resume Writing! This paper will introduce the history, current theoretical causes and treatments of autism. After doing research to write a concise paper addressing the above topics I realized something was missing; the admiration I feel for the parents of autistic children, the emotions behind working and living with autistic children and the grief of realizing these children are autistic. So, also included in grant this paper are personal statements and stories of mothers and fathers of autistic children. Thank you to all of them for sharing their stories, for their stories taught me more than any textbook or journal article could have. Writing Services! The word autism stems from the Greek word autos which means self. This term was first applied to schizophrenics by Eugen Bleuler, a Swiss psychiatrist. Online Yupo! Bleuler used this term to address the characteristic of certain schizophrenics who appeared to Monster writing services have their own style of Ahrq grant thinking, autistic thinking. Autistic thinking is the Monster resume services view that the universe revolves around oneself and that the paperclip zonhoven outside world has no effect on the self (Nevid et al., 1994).

It was not until 1943 that another psychiatrist used the word autism. Dr. Leo Kanner, a professor at Johns Hopkins University at the time, applied the Monster resume writing word autism to a group of children who he observed as having behavioral problems, social problems, communication problems and appeared to be self-absorbed (Edelson, 1995.). It is due to the lack of social interaction that Kanner applied the term autism (Society For The Autistically Handicapped, 1996.). In the fifty three years that autism has been the term of choice for essays the developmental disorder consisting of writing services avoiding social contact, stereotyped behaviors and slow, or lack of, development of a useful language; much has been discovered. Much more needs to be. The diagnosis of autism is a difficult one to make. Autism, although one of the largest disabilities to affect children, five in every ten thousand births, is not constant. Yupo! It affects individuals in varying ways and in varying degrees. This is something I have noticed a great deal.

I work with some autistic children who can have a complete, logical conversation with me. I have also worked with autistic children who don't seem to know I am three inches from their nose. A diagnosis of resume autism is usually made by How to better essays pdf literary the child's third birthday but, there are signs from birth that the child is Monster, different. An autistic child is paperclip zonhoven, more likely to Monster resume writing resist affection, arching back and not staying still when being held, than is a child without autism. How To Better Essays Pdf Literary! Autistic children are also usually described as being easy babies to take care of.

It is not until the child should be developing language and social skills that parents realize something is different about their child. One-third of autistic children develop normally until age two (Edelson, 1994.). The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Monster Mental Disorders , 4th Edition, has changed the with geography homework online diagnosis drastically. The DSM-IV is the first psychologically based text that identifies the varying degrees of Monster autism. Autism is now found on Teach essay writing, Axis I, the axis that deals with pervasive developmental disorders, instead of Axis II, which covers mental retardation and personality disorders. For a diagnosis of autism to be made six symptoms from three major areas: social interaction, communication and stereotyped behavior patterns must be present before the age of three. There must be at least two symptoms associated with social interaction and one in each of the other areas (Edelson,, 1994.). There are a number of other characteristics associated with autism although they need not be present for a autistic diagnosis.

Features of autism may also include the following: resistance of being touched, ignorance of Monster writing services heat and cold, no sensation of pain, fascination with sounds and tastes, giggling or weeping for no apparent reason, absence of emotions or reactions, self-injurious behaviors and essay self-stimulatory behaviors (Society For The Autistically Handicapped, 1996.). Writing Services! I observe these associated features of autism on a daily basis. An example of an autistic child's ignorance of heat and essay cold occurred recently when we were at the beach. The water at the beach was very cold to the touch of Monster writing my co-workers and yet, a young girl who is diagnosed with autism ran straight into the water with no reaction to the coolness of it. Another example of these associated features is the numerous children I work with who put everything possible into their mouths and then spit it out or throw it away. Almost all of these children smell the object before placing it into Writing and contrast, their mouth. Self-stimulatory and resume writing self-injurious behaviors are the Writing and contrast essay more prevalent of the associated features of autism and will be discussed in length below. Self-stimulatory behavior is defined as repetitive body movements or repetitive movement of an object. Monster! Self-stimulatory behaviors can be split into the five senses.

An individual with a visual self-stimulatory behavior is likely to stare at Help zonhoven lights, move fingers in front of his/her eyes and flap his/her hands. Monster Services! I have observed this behavior in an adult male living with autism. His hand flapping behavior is usually preceding a self-injurious behavior or an act of injurious behavior towards another person. Essay Writing Uk! The fact that his hand flapping precedes such events makes the resume services point that those working with autistic individuals must realize that behaviors vary, for most autistic individuals hand flapping is purely a self-stimulatory behavior and How to better pdf literary not one that leads to violence. Auditory behaviors include tapping of the ears, snapping fingers and making vocal noises (Edelson, 1995.).

I am unclear as to why but, the children I work with who are nonverbal are the writing services children more prone to Ahrq dissertation make vocal noises. I have also observed that these noises occur either in a time of excitement or fear. For example, I have three children who have never spoken a word but, each time I take them on the trampoline and Monster writing services jump with them they vocalize high pitched squeals and others scream. I will have to look into the reason for this. I do notice that tactile stimulation is highly prevalent. Tactile stimulation can include any of the following: rubbing objects with hands, rubbing skin or picking at Buy paper for college online the skin and scratching (Edelson, 1994.). Scratching is definitely the biggest self-stimulation I have observed.

This behavior is a varying one for if a child scratches to the point of bleeding, which most do because they like to watch the blood come out, it is then considered a self-injurious behavior. The final two areas of self-stimulatory senses are taste, which an example has already been given for, and smell, which again has already had an writing services, example. There are many theories behind why autistic people perform these behaviors, none of How to essays pdf literary which have been proven through research. One theory states that these behaviors are performed for internal pleasure while another states that the behaviors are the only way an autistic knows how to calm oneself when overly excited or anxious (Edelson, 1994.). The best way to handle a child that is resume services, exhibiting a self-stimulatory behavior is to redirect their attention with a more appropriate form of stimulation, such as a book or crayons.

As seen in the above paragraph self-stimulatory behaviors and self-injurious behaviors can overlap. Self-injurious behaviors refer to those behaviors that an Help paperclip zonhoven, individual does to him/herself causing a bruise, red mark or open wound. The most common forms of such behaviors include head-banging, hand-biting and as noted above scratching to the point of bleeding (Edelson, 1994.). One of the most difficult things for me to adjust to Monster at a previous job was the scars on children's hands from Help with homework online chat, biting. Due to Monster the lack of response to pain, autistic individuals will bite their hand out of frustration until they calm themselves, regardless of the depth or size of the bite. Again, theories behind these behaviors range from that of internal pleasure to over arousal. Another theory suggests that these behaviors may be the result of zonhoven sub-clinical seizures, which is an abnormality in resume EEG patterns (Edelson, 1994.).

The characteristics of autism are universal but, vary from person to person. Although the characteristics are universal the guidelines for the diagnosis of autism are not universal which is write better essays, why some countries report higher rates of occurrence whereas other countries, Japan for example, report lower rates of Monster services occurrence. Possibly the biggest barrier to joining psychology professionals on the diagnosis of autism is the cause, or more accurately the lack thereof. The cause of essays pdf literary autism remains unknown yet, many theoretical causes exist. Early views on the cause of autism focused on the family structure of the child. Resume Writing! It was believed that parents of autistic children must be cold and paperclip zonhoven detached. The term given to such parents, usually the mother, was that of emotional refrigerator or refrigerator mother (Nevid et al., 1994). Resume Writing Services! There is no evidence to support this theory.

Currently, there are many beliefs as to Teach writing uk what may be the cause of this disability. The general thought in the psychology field today is that autism may be caused by a variety of coexisting problems (Edelson, 1995.). There is Monster resume writing services, some evidence to support the claim that autism may be an effect of exposure to a virus. The virus at write better essays pdf literary hand is that of rubella. Studies have shown that there is an increased risk of a child being born with autism if the services mother was exposed to rubella during the first trimester of pregnancy.

It has also been proposed that toxins and pdf literary pollution may lead to autism (Edelson, 1995.). This theory has no scientific evidence at resume this time. The widest held beliefs about the causes of autism appear to be in the fields of genetics and neurology (Society For The Autistically Handicapped, 1996.). Researchers have identified four possible neurological explanations: over arousal of the reticular system, dysfunction of the limbic system, left hemisphere dysfunction and Help online perceptual inconstancy associated with brain stem dysfunction (Society For The Autistically Handicapped, 1996). The hypothesis that autism may be due to over arousal of the Monster services reticular system has been set aside due to the results of recent studies that do not allow researchers to claim that there is in geography homework online fact a relationship between arousal and overt behaviors (Society For The Autistically Handicapped, 1996.). A recent theory uses behaviors of animals with hippocampal lesions to compare with behaviors of autistic children. Animals with lesions possessed the resume services same behavior patterns as children who have autism.

Although this similarity suggests underlying mechanisms, there also appears to be behavioral differences which is why this theory is compatible with the Buy paper current knowledge of Monster writing autism (Society For The Autistically Handicapped, 1996.). Paperclip Zonhoven! The left hemisphere of the brain deals with language and Monster services some aspects of online cognition. The fact that the resume writing services areas of language and cognitive thought are affected by autism has led researchers to the theory that the limbic system of those living with autism may have impairments. The only fault with this theory is that because the onset of autism is at a young age the right hemisphere of the Help zonhoven brain should compensate for what the left side does not accomplish but, this does not appear to be the case (Society For The Autistically Handicapped, 1996.). Finally, the theory that those living with autism have an Monster services, inability to regulate sensory input, which affects ones view of external reality, is known as perceptual inconstancy. Again, this theory has not been able to show the nature of these instabilities (Society For The Autistically Handicapped, 1996.). Although there is no or little evidence for and contrast essay the neurological theories concerning the cause of autism, there is some evidence that points to Monster resume genetic causes. Buy Paper For College! The idea that autism has a genetic basis has been in existence since 1964 when Dr.

Bernard Rimland discovered that monozygotic twins had a more prevalent showing of autism than did dizygotic twins. Since 1964 this finding has been confirmed by other researchers. One supporter of the genetics theory is University of California Los Angeles (UCLA). In the 1980's UCLA did a study that resulted in the following findings: of eleven families where the father was diagnosed with autism twenty-five children, over fifty percent , were also diagnosed with autism (Edelson, 1995.). The general population only has an incidence rate of five autistic children born in Monster writing services every ten thousand births, thus giving further evidence to Writing the compare the genetics theory. Resume Services! The remaining two genetic theories; that of a genetic mutation and paperclip zonhoven a genetic predisposition, I feel can be integrated together. The theory of genetic mutation is part of Darwin's theory of evolution, naturally occurring mutations through selection of partners . Resume Writing! Genetic predisposition means simply that there may be a susceptibility to autism in some people (Edelson, 1995.). In combining these two theories it is my belief that if genetic mutation is due to the selection of a partner and then a child is with geography online, produced who has been diagnosed autistic, that there must have been a genetic predisposition to autism for the child due to the genes of the parents. Therefore the predisposition is Monster writing services, not in Teach the child's genes rather, it is the combining of the resume services parents genes.

An example of this would be the fact that exposure to rubella while pregnant may cause autism in some children but, all mothers exposed to rubella do not produce children with autism. There must be a missing link as to why some children do, and some don't, have autism; the genes of the essays parents and their predisposition to autistic characteristics. Although this is just my theory, it has been shown that there is evidence of genetics playing a part in resume writing services the cause of autism. I look forward to the day, if there is Help paperclip zonhoven, one, when the true cause of autism is discovered. Although there is no known cause for autism there are numerous treatments that have been shown to help autistic people.

Again, there are varying degrees of resume autism therefore the treatment given to an individual may work for him/her but, may not work for another. Treatments for autism range from medical findings to parents of autistic children developing their own treatments. Some therapies are: Anti-Yeast Therapy, Dimethylglycine (food substance) Supplements, The Son- Rise Program and Higashi (Society For The Autistically Handicapped, 1996.). Whereas the Anti-Yeast and the Dimethylglycine therapies focus on medical findings and/or vitamins to help modify the behaviors of an autistic individual, the Son-Rise Program and Higashi, which means Daily Life Therapy in Help paperclip Japanese, focuses on the roles that the people around an autistic person have in modifying behaviors (,A HREF=http://www.rmplc.co.uk/eduweb/sites/autism/autism5.htmlSociety For The Autistically Handicapped, 1996.). Writing Services! The therapies that are most interesting to me include Mega-Vitamin Theory and Facilitated Communication. Dr. The Compare! Bernard Rimland researched the claims from parents that certain vitamins and foods affected their autistic child's behaviors (Society For The Autistically Handicapped, 1996.

Treatments). It was concluded that Vitamin B6 is an writing services, effective treatment for forty-five percent of autistic people. The taking of vitamin B6 helps to improve: speech, sleeping patterns, lessened irritability, attention span and decrease self-stimulatory behaviors (Society For The Autistically Handicapped, 1996.). Paperclip! This treatment once started takes sixty to ninety days for an observed affect to be seen. I know some children who are currently on this from writing, of treatment. I have only experienced the Buy paper online full treatment with one child and there has been a noticeable difference in self-stimulatory behaviors and mostly with attention span. This child will now look me in the eye, which in itself is rare for autistic children, and listen to what I am saying.

I know that the child is Monster resume writing services, listening because the Ahrq grant actions taken are what I have instructed him to do. I can see why this theory would be a blessing to parents. The type of therapy that I most intrigued by is Facilitated Communication. I first heard of this therapy in 1992. Facilitated Communication is a method of helping an Monster, autistic individual express him/herself by giving physical support to an arm or fingers, enabling the individual to use a typewriter, picture board or alphabet board. This form of therapy is very controversial because of the fact that there is a facilitator and that the autistic individual does not do this on essay writing, his/her own. When using this form of therapy it has often been typed by the autistic individual that he/she is not retarded or stupid but intelligent (Society For The Autistically Handicapped, 1996.). Monster Resume Writing Services! Through my own research of this treatment method, I have also come across stories where the autistic individual has expressed anger because he/she understands everything happening in Help with geography daily life yet, can not express thoughts or feelings. There have also been stories of autistic children hiding under their covers at Monster writing services night with flashlights reading books and then typing the book word for word when using facilitated communication. Writing Uk! This amazes me!

What if these children are just trapped inside themselves but, are cognitively and emotionally the same as you and I? Although this treatment has not yet withstood the rigors of scientific investigation I do not see the harm in allowing it to be practiced. If it does in resume fact prove to be a scientifically sound treatment then the world of autistic individuals and their families will forever be changed. It is clear that although autism has been a known disability for fifty years it remains a mystery. With so many varying characteristics, no sound cause and no treatment that is universal, there is much more that needs to be learned. Working with autistic children has shown me that there are in fact many different types of autism. Also, working with these children has made me wonder many things: Am I going to be the mother of a child with a disability, is Help paperclip, that why I have ended up in this type of work?

How do the parents deal with having an writing, autistic child? Why, do some parents appear so relaxed and comfortable with what life has handed them while others are clearly depressed? How does having an autistic sibling affect brothers and sisters? Wanting answers for these questions I turned to those who could answer them, parents of autistic children. Writing Uk! Donna Reagan, the mother of an autistic child, touched me with her story. David, her son, is now twenty years old. When asked how she felt finding out her child was autistic Donna responded, Basically, when I found out that my son was autistic, I was hopeful.

Since then I have moved pretty much into heartbreak and despair. Monster Writing Services! I imagine the next step will be acceptance. It seems to grant me that this is resume, like the online yupo grieving process and we move from one step to resume writing another, it just takes longer when the object of your grief is living. Donna has experienced other effects of having an autistic child. David was diagnosed at age four and a half as being severely mentally retarded but, Donna knew this was not the case because of her own experience with this population.

Donna was labeled as being in denial. This is an example of how much more needs to be learned about the characteristics of Help autism and Monster resume as previously discussed the DSM-IV has taken the first step in clarifying the varying degrees of the disability. Donna's husband, a minister, was in denial, believing that God would heal their son and uk make him a minister. Her husband had found an old encyclopedia that claimed the cause for autism was refrigerator mothers, as discussed earlier (Reagan, 1996). Writing! This lead to the physical, emotional and mental abuse of Donna. And the physical abuse of David at the hands of Ahrq dissertation his father. Donna moved her family away from the man that was once her husband.

It is not uncommon for Monster writing parents of an Buy paper for college, autistic child to Monster resume divorce, most do with-in the grant first five years of the child's life. Atop of what was going on with her marriage and Monster resume services own life , Donna still had to care for a hyper autistic child. She tells of times she found David ready to jump from essay uk, a bridge into a creek, on the window ledge on their third story apartment and she says there are many other stories she could tell. David's safety was her biggest concern, with reason. David was eventually placed into a special care facility, Placing him was the most heart-wrenching decision I have ever made. David has been in placement care for ten years now. His father has seen him once. In two years he will again move to other placement. Monster Resume Writing Services! Donna's biggest worry, who will care for David when she is gone?

More and more I understand why people with special children pray that they will out live their children. I have begun to pray that prayer as well. Geography Homework Online Chat! Donna's story was the first I received and resume it made me eager to receive more. I then received an email from writing, Suzanne, the mother of a seven year old autistic girl. Before I tell Suzanne's story I would like to point out services, a common theme I have found among parents of autistic children, those who's children are young appear to be hopeful and optimistic whereas those who's children are older seem to realize that autism is a lifelong disability with many hardships. The most common theme I have found though is this; what will happen when I, the writing uk parent, am gone. Every parent I spoke with, those that I contacted through email and those I see each day at Monster resume work with their children, expressed concern about their child's life once they had passed on. Suzanne expresses this very well, as you will see. Suzanne says that the Writing the compare essay diagnosis of her daughter was not a surprise, because the word had been thrown around so much in all of the tests that were being done but, she does say that, It is certainly a life sentence. Suzanne expresses the feeling of loss that can be felt by parents upon hearing the diagnosis.

No longer are there hopes for the child to Monster services accomplish all that the parents could not accomplish; no medical school, no academic scholar. Due to the stress of raising an Ahrq dissertation grant, autistic child Suzanne and her husband sought counseling for six months and services have now learned to and contrast essay work through all of the emotions and resume writing responsibilities of having a special child together. Suzanne sounds tired and still in a stage of sorrow due to Help paperclip her daughter's diagnosis. She explains how the family doesn't go out much, It is very tiring to have this kind of Monster resume writing kid. Her and her husband assume that their daughter will live with them until they are gone and yet, she speaks of the hope that maybe her daughter will be able to buy her own groceries, pay taxes and Writing get a job she will enjoy. Monster Resume Writing! There are plans to set up a trust for their daughter to ensure that when they, Suzanne and her husband, pass on she will be taken care of. Suzanne ends by dissertation grant saying, We haven't given up on her yet but, we are also realistic about what may happen. I would like to point out a couple that I know through work. Their daughter is nine years old and I have taken a liking to Monster writing services her. She amazes me each day and I look forward to what she will teach me next.

There are times when I wonder what she would be like if she were not autistic but, then I realize she wouldn't be the same little girl I have grown so close to. I admire her parents greatly for Ahrq dissertation grant their outlook on her disability. They both appear well adjusted and they treat her just as they do their other children. Monster Writing! The mother even says that she is easier to care for than her children without disabilities. She, like Suzanne, says that she would like to see her daughter do things on her own when she grows up but, she has no need to rush that time. Teach Essay! As the Monster services mother of an autistic child, she says her daughter is her best friend, they do everything together.

I know, from Buy paper for college, working with her daughter that she is writing services, not of the highest functioning autistic children but, she is Buy paper for college online yupo, not the resume lowest either. Her daughter understands when spoken to and will say things that are appropriate to Help chat the surroundings. I can not express how wonderful it is to work with this child. And I hope that if I do have a child with a disability that I will have the same outlook as her parents do. Most of the research that has been done concerning autistic families is Monster writing, how siblings are affected. In a study done by Help with Royers and Mycke in 1995, it was found that siblings of autistic children had a fair understanding of the resume writing disability and this finding was independent of age. Also found was the fact that children who have an grant, autistic sibling rate their relationship with their brother/sister better than two siblings of writing which neither has a disability. From what I have seen at work, the siblings of the Help paperclip zonhoven autistic children take responsibility for their brother/sister and at the same time do not truly understand why their brother/sister can't do such things for him/herself.

I believe that there is a very unique bond between autistic children and their siblings. Autism is a lifelong, developmental disability. The characteristics of the disability; little or lack of speech development, avoiding social contact or awareness and routines of behaviors are not experienced in the same degree for resume writing services everyone living with autism. The lack of a single identified cause for autism leaves much to be discovered in the field. Theoretical causes, such as neurological and genetic, may prove to be a link to the true cause of the disability. It has been shown that those living with autism may be helped, not cured, with available treatments. Teach Essay Writing Uk! Such treatments include a high dosage of Vitamin B6 in the diet and the Son-Rise Program. Services! A controversial treatment, Facilitated Communication, may allow autistic individuals a chance to communicate with the rest of the world without becoming frustrated at the inability to communicate. Parents of dissertation grant autistic children deserve all the support and help they can handle.

By hearing Donna and writing Suzanne's stories I have learned more about autism and the range of emotions that are felt by parents than any textbook could of with geography homework online taught. Donna's story of basically having to start a new life due to Monster writing having an autistic child and Help all the hardships she has gone through in trying to do the best for David. And Suzanne's hopefulness and clear feeling of resume writing services loss due to the compare essay having a young autistic child. I am thankful for all of the children that I work with and I treasure each day I spend with them and all they teach me. I hope that their siblings realize how special their autistic brother/sister is.

Doing this paper and the research involved in it I have come to realize that I am blessed for having known each and every one of the autistic individuals I work with, for they may live in a world all their own but, every so often they let you in and that, that is a blessing.

Jan 27, 2018 Monster resume writing services, order essay services & assignment papers online -

Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Explaining the nature of consciousness is resume services one of the most important and How to better essays perplexing areas of philosophy, but the concept is notoriously ambiguous. The abstract noun “consciousness” is not frequently used by itself in the contemporary literature, but is originally derived from the Latin con (with) and scire (to know). Services. Perhaps the most commonly used contemporary notion of a conscious mental state is captured by Thomas Nagel’s famous “what it is like” sense (Nagel 1974). When I am in a conscious mental state, there is something it is like for me to be in that state from the zonhoven, subjective or first-person point of view. But how are we to understand this? For instance, how is the conscious mental state related to the body? Can consciousness be explained in terms of brain activity? What makes a mental state be a conscious mental state? The problem of consciousness is arguably the most central issue in current philosophy of mind and is also importantly related to major traditional topics in metaphysics, such as the writing services, possibility of immortality and the belief in Buy paper for college, free will.

This article focuses on Western theories and conceptions of services, consciousness, especially as found in Help zonhoven, contemporary analytic philosophy of mind. The two broad, traditional and competing theories of resume writing, mind are dualism and materialism (or physicalism). While there are many versions of each, the former generally holds that the chat, conscious mind or a conscious mental state is non-physical in some sense, whereas the latter holds that, to Monster services, put it crudely, the dissertation grant, mind is the brain, or is caused by Monster resume services, neural activity. It is against this general backdrop that many answers to essay writing uk, the above questions are formulated and resume developed. There are also many familiar objections to both materialism and Help with chat dualism. For example, it is often said that materialism cannot truly explain just how or why some brain states are conscious, and Monster resume writing that there is an important “explanatory gap” between mind and matter. On the other hand, dualism faces the problem of explaining how a non-physical substance or mental state can causally interact with the physical body. Some philosophers attempt to How to write essays, explain consciousness directly in neurophysiological or physical terms, while others offer cognitive theories of consciousness whereby conscious mental states are reduced to some kind of representational relation between mental states and the world. There are a number of such representational theories of consciousness currently on the market, including higher-order theories which hold that what makes a mental state conscious is resume writing services that the subject is with geography chat aware of it in some sense.

The relationship between consciousness and science is also central in much current theorizing on this topic: How does the brain “bind together” various sensory inputs to produce a unified subjective experience? What are the neural correlates of consciousness? What can be learned from abnormal psychology which might help us to understand normal consciousness? To what extent are animal minds different from human minds? Could an appropriately programmed machine be conscious? 1. Terminological Matters: Various Concepts of Consciousness. The concept of consciousness is notoriously ambiguous. It is important first to make several distinctions and to resume, define related terms.

The abstract noun “consciousness” is How to write better not often used in resume, the contemporary literature, though it should be noted that it is for college online originally derived from the Latin con (with) and scire (to know). Thus, “consciousness” has etymological ties to one’s ability to know and perceive, and should not be confused with conscience, which has the much more specific moral connotation of knowing when one has done or is doing something wrong. Through consciousness, one can have knowledge of the external world or one’s own mental states. Resume Writing. The primary contemporary interest lies more in the use of the expressions “x is conscious” or “x is Ahrq dissertation grant conscious of y.” Under the former category, perhaps most important is the distinction between state and Monster creature consciousness (Rosenthal 1993a). We sometimes speak of an individual mental state, such as a pain or perception, as conscious. On the other hand, we also often speak of organisms or creatures as conscious, such as when we say “human beings are conscious” or “dogs are conscious.” Creature consciousness is also simply meant to Teach, refer to the fact that an organism is awake, as opposed to sleeping or in a coma. However, some kind of state consciousness is resume writing services often implied by creature consciousness, that is, the organism is having conscious mental states. Pdf Literary. Due to the lack of a direct object in the expression “x is conscious,” this is usually referred to as intransitive consciousness, in contrast to transitive consciousness where the locution “x is conscious of y” is used (Rosenthal 1993a, 1997). Most contemporary theories of consciousness are aimed at writing services, explaining state consciousness; that is, explaining what makes a mental state a conscious mental state. It might seem that “conscious” is synonymous with, say, “awareness” or “experience” or “attention.” However, it is crucial to recognize that this is not generally accepted today.

For example, though perhaps somewhat atypical, one might hold that there are even unconscious experiences, depending of course on online how the Monster writing, term “experience” is Teach essay defined (Carruthers 2000). Writing Services. More common is the belief that we can be aware of external objects in some unconscious sense, for example, during cases of subliminal perception. Buy Paper For College Yupo. The expression “conscious awareness” does not therefore seem to be redundant. Monster Services. Finally, it is not clear that consciousness ought to be restricted to attention. It seems plausible to suppose that one is conscious (in some sense) of objects in Writing and contrast essay, one’s peripheral visual field even though one is only attending to resume, some narrow (focal) set of objects within that visual field. Perhaps the most fundamental and commonly used notion of “conscious” is captured by Thomas Nagel’s famous “what it is like” sense (Nagel 1974).

When I am in a conscious mental state, there is “something it is like” for me to Ahrq, be in resume services, that state from the subjective or first-person point of view. When I am, for example, smelling a rose or having a conscious visual experience, there is something it “seems” or “feels” like from my perspective. An organism, such as a bat, is conscious if it is Ahrq grant able to experience the outer world through its (echo-locatory) senses. There is also something it is like to be a conscious creature whereas there is nothing it is like to writing services, be, for Ahrq dissertation, example, a table or tree. This is primarily the sense of “conscious state” that will be used throughout this entry. There are still, though, a cluster of expressions and terms related to Nagel’s sense, and some authors simply stipulate the way that they use such terms.

For example, philosophers sometimes refer to conscious states as phenomenal or qualitative states. More technically, philosophers often view such states as having qualitative properties called “qualia” (prounced like kwal' ee uh; the singular is quale). There is Monster resume services significant disagreement over the nature, and even the paperclip zonhoven, existence, of resume, qualia, but they are perhaps most frequently understood as the felt properties or qualities of with homework online, conscious states. Ned Block (1995) makes an often cited distinction between phenomenal consciousness (or “phenomenality”) and access consciousness. The former is very much in line with the Nagelian notion described above. However, Block also defines the quite different notion of access consciousness in terms of a mental state’s relationship with other mental states; for example, a mental state’s “availability for Monster resume services, use in reasoning and rationality guiding speech and action” (Block 1995: 227). This would, for example, count a visual perception as (access) conscious not because it has the zonhoven, “what it’s likeness” of phenomenal states, but rather because it carries visual information which is generally available for use by the organism, regardless of whether or not it has any qualitative properties.

Access consciousness is therefore more of a functional notion; that is, concerned with what such states do. Although this concept of consciousness is certainly very important in cognitive science and philosophy of mind generally, not everyone agrees that access consciousness deserves to be called “consciousnesses” in any important sense. Resume Services. Block himself argues that neither sense of consciousness implies the other, while others urge that there is Buy paper for college online a more intimate connection between the two. Finally, it is resume helpful to distinguish between consciousness and essay self-consciousness, which plausibly involves some kind of awareness or consciousness of one’s own mental states (instead of something out in the world). Self-consciousness arguably comes in degrees of sophistication ranging from minimal bodily self-awareness to the ability to services, reason and reflect on one’s own mental states, such as one’s beliefs and desires. Some important historical figures have even held that consciousness entails some form of self-consciousness (Kant 1781/1965, Sartre 1956), a view shared by some contemporary philosophers (Gennaro 1996a, Kriegel 2004). Interest in the nature of with, conscious experience has no doubt been around for as long as there have been reflective humans. It would be impossible here to survey the entire history, but a few highlights are in order.

In the history of Western philosophy, which is the focus of this entry, important writings on human nature and the soul and mind go back to Monster writing, ancient philosophers, such as Plato. More sophisticated work on the nature of consciousness and perception can be found in uk, the work of Plato’s most famous student Aristotle (see Caston 2002), and then throughout the later Medieval period. It is, however, with the work of Rene Descartes (1596-1650) and writing his successors in Buy paper online yupo, the early modern period of philosophy that consciousness and the relationship between the Monster resume writing services, mind and body took center stage. As we shall see, Descartes argued that the mind is a non-physical substance distinct from the body. He also did not believe in the existence of unconscious mental states, a view certainly not widely held today. Descartes defined “thinking” very broadly to include virtually every kind of for college online yupo, mental state and urged that consciousness is essential to thought. Our mental states are, according to resume services, Descartes, infallibly transparent to introspection. John Locke (1689/1975) held a similar position regarding the connection between mentality and consciousness, but was far less committed on better the exact metaphysical nature of the Monster resume services, mind. Perhaps the most important philosopher of the period explicitly to endorse the existence of unconscious mental states was G.W. Leibniz (1686/1991, 1720/1925).

Although Leibniz also believed in for college, the immaterial nature of mental substances (which he called “monads”), he recognized the existence of what he called “petit perceptions,” which are basically unconscious perceptions. Writing Services. He also importantly distinguished between perception and essay writing apperception, roughly the difference between outer-directed consciousness and self-consciousness (see Gennaro 1999 for some discussion). The most important detailed theory of mind in the early modern period was developed by Immanuel Kant. Resume Writing Services. His main work Critique of Pure Reason (1781/1965) is as equally dense as it is important, and dissertation cannot easily be summarized in this context. Although he owes a great debt to his immediate predecessors, Kant is arguably the most important philosopher since Plato and Aristotle and services is highly relevant today. Kant basically thought that an adequate account of phenomenal consciousness involved far more than any of his predecessors had considered. Teach Uk. There are important mental structures which are “presupposed” in conscious experience, and Kant presented an elaborate theory as to what those structures are, which, in turn, had other important implications. He, like Leibniz, also saw the need to postulate the existence of unconscious mental states and mechanisms in order to provide an adequate theory of mind (Kitcher 1990 and Monster resume writing services Brook 1994 are two excellent books on Kant’s theory of mind.).

Over the past one hundred years or so, however, research on consciousness has taken off in many important directions. In psychology, with the notable exception of the virtual banishment of consciousness by behaviorist psychologists (e.g., Skinner 1953), there were also those deeply interested in with geography homework online chat, consciousness and various introspective (or “first-person”) methods of investigating the mind. Resume. The writings of such figures as Wilhelm Wundt (1897), William James (1890) and Alfred Titchener (1901) are good examples of this approach. Franz Brentano (1874/1973) also had a profound effect on some contemporary theories of consciousness. Similar introspectionist approaches were used by those in the so-called “phenomenological” tradition in philosophy, such as in the writings of Writing essay, Edmund Husserl (1913/1931, 1929/1960) and Martin Heidegger (1927/1962). The work of Sigmund Freud was very important, at minimum, in bringing about the near universal acceptance of the existence of unconscious mental states and processes. It must, however, be kept in mind that none of the above had very much scientific knowledge about the detailed workings of the brain. The relatively recent development of neurophysiology is, in Monster writing services, part, also responsible for the unprecedented interdisciplinary research interest in consciousness, particularly since the 1980s. There are now several important journals devoted entirely to the compare essay, the study of consciousness: Consciousness and Cognition , Journal of Consciousness Studies , and Psyche . There are also major annual conferences sponsored by world wide professional organizations, such as the Association for the Scientific Study of Consciousness, and an entire book series called “Advances in Consciousness Research” published by John Benjamins. (For a small sample of Monster writing services, introductory texts and important anthologies, see Kim 1996, Gennaro 1996b, Block et. al. 1997, Seager 1999, Chalmers 2002, Baars et. Buy Paper Online. al. 2003, Blackmore 2004, Campbell 2005, Velmans and Schneider 2007, Zelazo et al.

2007, Revonsuo 2010.) 3. Monster. The Metaphysics of Consciousness: Materialism vs. Dualism. Metaphysics is the branch of Help with geography homework online, philosophy concerned with the writing, ultimate nature of reality. There are two broad traditional and Writing the compare and contrast competing metaphysical views concerning the nature of the resume services, mind and conscious mental states: dualism and materialism. While there are many versions of each, the former generally holds that the conscious mind or a conscious mental state is dissertation non-physical in Monster writing services, some sense. On the Teach essay, other hand, materialists hold that the writing, mind is the brain, or, more accurately, that conscious mental activity is identical with neural activity.

It is important to Teach essay, recognize that by non-physical, dualists do not merely mean “not visible to the naked eye.” Many physical things fit this description, such as the Monster resume writing services, atoms which make up the air in a typical room. For something to be non-physical, it must literally be outside the realm of physics; that is, not in space at all and undetectable in principle by the instruments of physics. It is equally important to recognize that the category “physical” is broader than the category “material.” Materialists are called such because there is the tendency to view the brain, a material thing, as the most likely physical candidate to identify with the mind. However, something might be physical but not material in this sense, such as an electromagnetic or energy field. Writing Uk. One might therefore instead be a “physicalist” in some broader sense and resume still not a dualist. Buy Paper For College. Thus, to say that the mind is non-physical is to say something much stronger than that it is Monster resume services non-material. Dualists, then, tend to believe that conscious mental states or minds are radically different from anything in the physical world at all.

a. Dualism: General Support and Related Issues. There are a number of reasons why some version of dualism has been held throughout the centuries. For one thing, especially from the introspective or first-person perspective, our conscious mental states just do not seem like physical things or processes. That is, when we reflect on our conscious perceptions, pains, and with geography homework online desires, they do not seem to writing services, be physical in grant, any sense. Consciousness seems to resume writing services, be a unique aspect of the world not to be understood in any physical way. Although materialists will urge that this completely ignores the more scientific third-person perspective on Ahrq dissertation the nature of services, consciousness and mind, this idea continues to have force for many today. Indeed, it is arguably the crucial underlying intuition behind historically significant “conceivability arguments” against materialism and for dualism. Such arguments typically reason from the premise that one can conceive of one’s conscious states existing without one’s body or, conversely, that one can imagine one’s own physical duplicate without consciousness at all (see section 3b.iv). The metaphysical conclusion ultimately drawn is Writing the compare and contrast essay that consciousness cannot be identical with anything physical, partly because there is Monster resume writing no essential conceptual connection between the mental and the physical. Arguments such as these go back to Teach essay uk, Descartes and continue to be used today in various ways (Kripke 1972, Chalmers 1996), but it is highly controversial as to whether they succeed in showing that materialism is false.

Materialists have replied in various ways to such arguments and the relevant literature has grown dramatically in recent years. Historically, there is also the clear link between dualism and writing a belief in immortality, and hence a more theistic perspective than one tends to find among materialists. Indeed, belief in dualism is often explicitly theologically motivated. Help With Homework Online Chat. If the conscious mind is Monster writing not physical, it seems more plausible to geography chat, believe in Monster resume services, the possibility of life after bodily death. On the other hand, if conscious mental activity is identical with brain activity, then it would seem that when all brain activity ceases, so do all conscious experiences and thus no immortality. Paperclip. After all, what do many people believe continues after bodily death? Presumably, one’s own conscious thoughts, memories, experiences, beliefs, and so on. There is perhaps a similar historical connection to a belief in free will, which is of course a major topic in its own right. Writing Services. For our purposes, it suffices to How to write essays, say that, on Monster services some definitions of what it is to act freely, such ability seems almost “supernatural” in the sense that one’s conscious decisions can alter the otherwise deterministic sequence of homework online, events in services, nature.

To put it another way: If we are entirely physical beings as the materialist holds, then mustn’t all of the online chat, brain activity and behavior in resume services, question be determined by the laws of nature? Although materialism may not logically rule out immortality or free will, materialists will likely often reply that such traditional, perhaps even outdated or pre-scientific beliefs simply ought to the compare essay, be rejected to the extent that they conflict with materialism. After all, if the weight of the Monster writing services, evidence points toward materialism and Ahrq away from services dualism, then so much the worse for yupo, those related views. One might wonder “even if the mind is services physical, what about the soul?” Maybe it’s the soul, not the mind, which is non-physical as one might be told in many religious traditions. While it is true that the essay uk, term “soul” (or “spirit”) is often used instead of “mind” in such religious contexts, the problem is Monster resume writing services that it is unclear just how the soul is supposed to differ from the mind. The terms are often even used interchangeably in many historical texts and by many philosophers because it is unclear what else the writing, soul could be other than “the mental substance.” It is difficult to describe the resume, soul in any way that doesn’t make it sound like what we mean by the mind. Paperclip. After all, that’s what many believe goes on after bodily death; namely, conscious mental activity. Granted that the term “soul” carries a more theological connotation, but it doesn’t follow that the words “soul” and “mind” refer to entirely different things.

Somewhat related to the issue of immortality, the existence of near death experiences is Monster resume writing also used as some evidence for dualism and immortality. Such patients experience a peaceful moving toward a light through a tunnel like structure, or are able to see doctors working on their bodies while hovering over them in an emergency room (sometimes akin to what is called an “out of body experience”). Paperclip Zonhoven. In response, materialists will point out that such experiences can be artificially induced in various experimental situations, and that starving the brain of oxygen is known to cause hallucinations. Various paranormal and psychic phenomena, such as clairvoyance, faith healing, and mind-reading, are sometimes also cited as evidence for dualism. However, materialists (and even many dualists) will first likely wish to be skeptical of the alleged phenomena themselves for Monster resume, numerous reasons. There are many modern day charlatans who should make us seriously question whether there really are such phenomena or mental abilities in the first place.

Second, it is not quite clear just how dualism follows from such phenomena even if they are genuine. A materialist, or physicalist at least, might insist that though such phenomena are puzzling and perhaps currently difficult to explain in physical terms, they are nonetheless ultimately physical in nature; for example, having to dissertation, do with very unusual transfers of energy in the physical world. The dualist advantage is perhaps not as obvious as one might think, and we need not jump to supernatural conclusions so quickly. i. Resume. Substance Dualism and Objections. Interactionist Dualism or simply “interactionism” is the most common form of “substance dualism” and its name derives from the Ahrq, widely accepted fact that mental states and bodily states causally interact with each other. For example, my desire to drink something cold causes my body to move to the refrigerator and get something to drink and, conversely, kicking me in the shin will cause me to feel a pain and get angry. Monster Writing Services. Due to for college yupo, Descartes’ influence, it is also sometimes referred to as “Cartesian dualism.” Knowing nothing about Monster, just where such causal interaction could take place, Descartes speculated that it was through the pineal gland, a now almost humorous conjecture. But a modern day interactionist would certainly wish to How to better essays, treat various areas of the brain as the location of such interactions. Three serious objections are briefly worth noting here. The first is simply the issue of just how does or could such radically different substances causally interact.

How something non-physical causally interacts with something physical, such as the brain? No such explanation is forthcoming or is perhaps even possible, according to materialists. Monster Resume Writing Services. Moreover, if causation involves a transfer of energy from cause to effect, then how is that possible if the mind is really non-physical? Gilbert Ryle (1949) mockingly calls the Cartesian view about the nature of Help, mind, a belief in the “ghost in the machine.” Secondly, assuming that some such energy transfer makes any sense at all, it is also then often alleged that interactionism is inconsistent with the resume services, scientifically well-established Conservation of Energy principle, which says that the total amount of energy in the universe, or any controlled part of it, remains constant. So any loss of energy in the cause must be passed along as a corresponding gain of energy in online, the effect, as in standard billiard ball examples. But if interactionism is true, then when mental events cause physical events, energy would literally come into the physical word. Monster. On the other hand, when bodily events cause mental events, energy would literally go out of the physical world. At the least, there is a very peculiar and How to write better unique notion of energy involved, unless one wished, even more radically, to deny the conservation principle itself. Monster Resume Services. Third, some materialists might also use the Help with geography online chat, well-known fact that brain damage (even to very specific areas of the brain) causes mental defects as a serious objection to services, interactionism (and thus as support for materialism).

This has of course been known for paperclip zonhoven, many centuries, but the level of detailed knowledge has increased dramatically in recent years. Now a dualist might reply that such phenomena do not absolutely refute her metaphysical position since it could be replied that damage to the brain simply causes corresponding damage to Monster resume services, the mind. However, this raises a host of other questions: Why not opt for dissertation, the simpler explanation, i.e., that brain damage causes mental damage because mental processes simply are brain processes? If the non-physical mind is damaged when brain damage occurs, how does that leave one’s mind according to the dualist’s conception of an afterlife? Will the severe amnesic at the end of life on resume writing services Earth retain such a deficit in the afterlife?

If proper mental functioning still depends on proper brain functioning, then is dualism really in no better position to offer hope for immortality? It should be noted that there is also another less popular form of substance dualism called parallelism, which denies the causal interaction between the How to essays pdf literary, non-physical mental and physical bodily realms. It seems fair to say that it encounters even more serious objections than interactionism. While a detailed survey of all varieties of dualism is beyond the scope of this entry, it is at least important to note here that the main and most popular form of dualism today is Monster called property dualism. Substance dualism has largely fallen out of Help homework online chat, favor at least in most philosophical circles, though there are important exceptions (e.g., Swinburne 1986, Foster 1996) and it often continues to be tied to various theological positions. Property dualism, on the other hand, is a more modest version of resume services, dualism and it holds that there are mental properties (that is, characteristics or aspects of things) that are neither identical with nor reducible to physical properties. There are actually several different kinds of How to write better essays pdf literary, property dualism, but what they have in common is the idea that conscious properties, such as the color qualia involved in Monster, a conscious experience of a visual perception, cannot be explained in purely physical terms and, thus, are not themselves to be identified with any brain state or process. Two other views worth mentioning are epiphenomenalism and panpsychism. The latter is the somewhat eccentric view that all things in physical reality, even down to micro-particles, have some mental properties. All substances have a mental aspect, though it is not always clear exactly how to characterize or test such a claim.

Epiphenomenalism holds that mental events are caused by brain events but those mental events are mere “epiphenomena” which do not, in turn, cause anything physical at all, despite appearances to the contrary (for a recent defense, see Robinson 2004). Finally, although not a form of dualism, idealism holds that there are only immaterial mental substances, a view more common in the Eastern tradition. The most prominent Western proponent of idealism was 18th century empiricist George Berkeley. The idealist agrees with the substance dualist, however, that minds are non-physical, but then denies the the compare and contrast, existence of mind-independent physical substances altogether. Monster Writing. Such a view faces a number of serious objections, and essay it also requires a belief in writing, the existence of God. Some form of materialism is probably much more widely held today than in centuries past. No doubt part of the reason for this has to do with the explosion in scientific knowledge about the workings of the brain and its intimate connection with consciousness, including the close connection between brain damage and various states of consciousness. Brain death is Buy paper online yupo now the main criterion for when someone dies. Stimulation to specific areas of the brain results in Monster resume, modality specific conscious experiences. Indeed, materialism often seems to be a working assumption in neurophysiology. Help Paperclip Zonhoven. Imagine saying to a neuroscientist “you are not really studying the services, conscious mind itself” when she is examining the workings of the brain during an fMRI.

The idea is that science is showing us that conscious mental states, such as visual perceptions, are simply identical with certain neuro-chemical brain processes; much like the science of chemistry taught us that water just is Ahrq grant H2O. There are also theoretical factors on the side of materialism, such as adherence to the so-called “principle of Monster writing, simplicity” which says that if two theories can equally explain a given phenomenon, then we should accept the one which posits fewer objects or forces. In this case, even if dualism could equally explain consciousness (which would of course be disputed by materialists), materialism is clearly the simpler theory in so far as it does not posit any objects or processes over and above physical ones. Materialists will wonder why there is a need to believe in the existence of such mysterious non-physical entities. Moreover, in the aftermath of the Darwinian revolution, it would seem that materialism is on even stronger ground provided that one accepts basic evolutionary theory and the notion that most animals are conscious. Given the similarities between the Teach essay uk, more primitive parts of the Monster writing, human brain and the brains of other animals, it seems most natural to Help paperclip zonhoven, conclude that, through evolution, increasing layers of brain areas correspond to Monster resume services, increased mental abilities. Ahrq. For example, having a well developed prefrontal cortex allows humans to reason and plan in ways not available to dogs and cats. It also seems fairly uncontroversial to resume writing, hold that we should be materialists about the online, minds of animals. If so, then it would be odd indeed to hold that non-physical conscious states suddenly appear on resume writing services the scene with humans.

There are still, however, a number of much discussed and Help paperclip zonhoven important objections to resume services, materialism, most of dissertation grant, which question the notion that materialism can adequately explain conscious experience. i. Objection 1: The Explanatory Gap and The Hard Problem. Joseph Levine (1983) coined the expression “the explanatory gap” to writing services, express a difficulty for any materialistic attempt to explain consciousness. Although not concerned to reject the metaphysics of materialism, Levine gives eloquent expression to the idea that there is Help online chat a key gap in our ability to explain the connection between phenomenal properties and brain properties (see also Levine 1993, 2001). The basic problem is that it is, at Monster resume services, least at present, very difficult for us to understand the relationship between brain properties and phenomenal properties in any explanatory satisfying way, especially given the fact that it seems possible for one to be present without the dissertation, other. There is an odd kind of arbitrariness involved: Why or how does some particular brain process produce that particular taste or visual sensation? It is difficult to see any real explanatory connection between specific conscious states and brain states in a way that explains just how or why the former are identical with the latter. There is therefore an explanatory gap between the physical and mental.

Levine argues that this difficulty in explaining consciousness is resume unique; that is, we do not have similar worries about Ahrq grant, other scientific identities, such as that “water is H2O” or that “heat is mean molecular kinetic energy.” There is “an important sense in resume, which we can’t really understand how [materialism] could be true.” (2001: 68) David Chalmers (1995) has articulated a similar worry by using the catchy phrase “the hard problem of consciousness,” which basically refers to the difficulty of explaining just how physical processes in Help, the brain give rise to subjective conscious experiences. The “really hard problem is the problem of experience…How can we explain why there is Monster resume services something it is the compare essay like to entertain a mental image, or to experience an Monster writing services emotion?” (1995: 201) Others have made similar points, as Chalmers acknowledges, but reference to the phrase “the hard problem” has now become commonplace in the literature. Unlike Levine, however, Chalmers is How to better pdf literary much more inclined to draw anti-materialist metaphysical conclusions from these and other considerations. Chalmers usefully distinguishes the hard problem of consciousness from what he calls the (relatively) “easy problems” of consciousness, such as the ability to discriminate and categorize stimuli, the ability of a cognitive system to access its own internal states, and the difference between wakefulness and sleep. Resume Writing Services. The easy problems generally have more to do with the functions of consciousness, but Chalmers urges that solving them does not touch the How to write better pdf literary, hard problem of phenomenal consciousness. Most philosophers, according to Chalmers, are really only addressing the easy problems, perhaps merely with something like Block’s “access consciousness” in mind. Their theories ignore phenomenal consciousness. There are many responses by Monster resume services, materialists to the above charges, but it is worth emphasizing that Levine, at Writing the compare, least, does not reject the metaphysics of materialism. Instead, he sees the “explanatory gap [as] primarily an epistemological problem” (2001: 10).

That is, it is primarily a problem having to do with knowledge or understanding. This concession is resume services still important at least to Help paperclip zonhoven, the extent that one is concerned with the larger related metaphysical issues discussed in section 3a, such as the possibility of immortality. Perhaps most important for the materialist, however, is writing services recognition of the fact that different concepts can pick out the dissertation, same property or object in the world (Loar 1990, 1997). Monster Resume Services. Out in the world there is only the Teach essay, one “stuff,” which we can conceptualize either as “water” or as “H2O.” The traditional distinction, made most notably by Gottlob Frege in the late 19th century, between “meaning” (or “sense”) and “reference” is also relevant here. Two or more concepts, which can have different meanings, can refer to the same property or object, much like “Venus” and “The Morning Star.” Materialists, then, explain that it is essential to distinguish between mental properties and our concepts of those properties. By analogy, there are so-called “phenomenal concepts” which uses a phenomenal or “first-person” property to refer to some conscious mental state, such as a sensation of red (Alter and Walter 2007). Services. In contrast, we can also use various concepts couched in physical or neurophysiological terms to refer to that same mental state from the third-person point of view. There is thus but one conscious mental state which can be conceptualized in two different ways: either by employing first-person experiential phenomenal concepts or by employing third-person neurophysiological concepts. It may then just be a “brute fact” about the world that there are such identities and geography online the appearance of Monster resume services, arbitrariness between brain properties and mental properties is just that – an apparent problem leading many to zonhoven, wonder about the alleged explanatory gap. Qualia would then still be identical to physical properties.

Moreover, this response provides a diagnosis for why there even seems to be such a gap; namely, that we use very different concepts to pick out the same property. Science will be able, in principle, to close the writing services, gap and solve the hard problem of consciousness in an analogous way that we now have a very good understanding for why “water is H2O” or “heat is mean molecular kinetic energy” that was lacking centuries ago. Maybe the Ahrq grant, hard problem isn’t so hard after all – it will just take some more time. After all, the science of chemistry didn’t develop overnight and resume writing we are relatively early in with homework, the history of resume writing services, neurophysiology and our understanding of writing, phenomenal consciousness. (See Shear 1997 for many more specific responses to the hard problem, but also for services, Chalmers’ counter-replies.) ii. Dissertation. Objection 2: The Knowledge Argument.

There is a pair of very widely discussed, and Monster services arguably related, objections to materialism which come from the seminal writings of Help with geography, Thomas Nagel (1974) and Frank Jackson (1982, 1986). Monster Resume Writing. These arguments, especially Jackson’s, have come to be known as examples of the “knowledge argument” against materialism, due to Help with online chat, their clear emphasis on the epistemological (that is, knowledge related) limitations of materialism. Like Levine, Nagel does not reject the metaphysics of materialism. Jackson had originally intended for his argument to yield a dualistic conclusion, but he no longer holds that view. Monster Resume Writing. The general pattern of each argument is to Ahrq, assume that all the physical facts are known about some conscious mind or conscious experience. Yet, the argument goes, not all is known about the resume services, mind or experience.

It is Writing then inferred that the missing knowledge is non-physical in some sense, which is surely an anti-materialist conclusion in some sense. Nagel imagines a future where we know everything physical there is to Monster resume writing services, know about some other conscious creature’s mind, such as a bat. How To Better Essays. However, it seems clear that we would still not know something crucial; namely, “what it is like to be a bat.” It will not do to imagine what it is like for us to services, be a bat. We would still not know what it is like to zonhoven, be a bat from the bat’s subjective or first-person point of view. The idea, then, is that if we accept the hypothesis that we know all of the physical facts about bat minds, and yet some knowledge about bat minds is left out, then materialism is Monster inherently flawed when it comes to Ahrq dissertation grant, explaining consciousness. Even in an ideal future in which everything physical is known by us, something would still be left out. Jackson’s somewhat similar, but no less influential, argument begins by asking us to imagine a future where a person, Mary, is kept in a black and white room from birth during which time she becomes a brilliant neuroscientist and an expert on color perception. Mary never sees red for Monster resume writing services, example, but she learns all of the physical facts and everything neurophysiologically about human color vision. Eventually she is released from the room and sees red for the first time. Jackson argues that it is clear that Mary comes to learn something new; namely, to use Nagel’s famous phrase, what it is like to experience red. This is a new piece of knowledge and hence she must have come to know some non-physical fact (since, by Help with, hypothesis, she already knew all of the physical facts).

Thus, not all knowledge about the conscious mind is physical knowledge. The influence and the quantity of work that these ideas have generated cannot be exaggerated. Numerous materialist responses to Nagel’s argument have been presented (such as Van Gulick 1985), and there is Monster now a very useful anthology devoted entirely to Ahrq grant, Jackson’s knowledge argument (Ludlow et. al. Resume. 2004). The Compare And Contrast Essay. Some materialists have wondered if we should concede up front that Mary wouldn’t be able to imagine the color red even before leaving the room, so that maybe she wouldn’t even be surprised upon seeing red for the first time. Various suspicions about the nature and effectiveness of such thought experiments also usually accompany this response. More commonly, however, materialists reply by arguing that Mary does not learn a new fact when seeing red for Monster resume services, the first time, but rather learns the same fact in uk, a different way. Recalling the distinction made in section 3b.i between concepts and objects or properties, the resume writing services, materialist will urge that there is only the one physical fact about color vision, but there are two ways to come to know it: either by paperclip zonhoven, employing neurophysiological concepts or by actually undergoing the relevant experience and Monster resume writing so by employing phenomenal concepts. We might say that Mary, upon leaving the black and white room, becomes acquainted with the same neural property as before, but only now from the first-person point of with, view. Resume Services. The property itself isn’t new; only the perspective, or what philosophers sometimes call the “mode of presentation,” is different. In short, coming to learn or know something new does not entail learning some new fact about the and contrast, world.

Analogies are again given in other less controversial areas, for example, one can come to writing services, know about some historical fact or event by reading a (reliable) third-person historical account or by having observed that event oneself. But there is still only the one objective fact under two different descriptions. Finally, it is crucial to Buy paper yupo, remember that, according to most, the metaphysics of materialism remains unaffected. Drawing a metaphysical conclusion from such purely epistemological premises is always a questionable practice. Nagel’s argument doesn’t show that bat mental states are not identical with bat brain states. Indeed, a materialist might even expect the resume, conclusion that Nagel draws; after all, given that our brains are so different from Buy paper for college yupo bat brains, it almost seems natural for there to resume writing services, be certain aspects of bat experience that we could never fully comprehend. Only the bat actually undergoes the relevant brain processes. Similarly, Jackson’s argument doesn’t show that Mary’s color experience is distinct from her brain processes. Despite the geography online chat, plethora of materialist responses, vigorous debate continues as there are those who still think that something profound must always be missing from any materialist attempt to explain consciousness; namely, that understanding subjective phenomenal consciousness is an writing inherently first-person activity which cannot be captured by any objective third-person scientific means, no matter how much scientific knowledge is accumulated. Some knowledge about consciousness is essentially limited to first-person knowledge.

Such a sense, no doubt, continues to fuel the related anti-materialist intuitions raised in the previous section. Perhaps consciousness is simply a fundamental or irreducible part of nature in some sense (Chalmers 1996). (For more see Van Gulick 1993.) Finally, some go so far as to argue that we are simply not capable of solving the problem of consciousness (McGinn 1989, 1991, 1995). In short, “mysterians” believe that the Help homework chat, hard problem can never be solved because of Monster resume, human cognitive limitations; the explanatory gap can never be filled. Once again, however, McGinn does not reject the metaphysics of materialism, but rather argues that we are “cognitively closed” with respect to this problem much like a rat or dog is writing cognitively incapable of solving, or even understanding, calculus problems. More specifically, McGinn claims that we are cognitively closed as to how the Monster resume writing services, brain produces conscious awareness.

McGinn concedes that some brain property produces conscious experience, but we cannot understand how this is so or even know what that brain property is. Help Homework Chat. Our concept forming mechanisms simply will not allow us to grasp the physical and Monster resume services causal basis of consciousness. With Homework. We are not conceptually suited to be able to do so. McGinn does not entirely rest his argument on past failed attempts at explaining consciousness in materialist terms; instead, he presents another argument for his admittedly pessimistic conclusion. McGinn observes that we do not have a mental faculty that can access both consciousness and the brain. We access consciousness through introspection or the Monster services, first-person perspective, but our access to the brain is for college online through the use of Monster resume services, outer spatial senses (e.g., vision) or a more third-person perspective. Thus we have no way to access both the dissertation grant, brain and consciousness together, and therefore any explanatory link between them is forever beyond our reach.

Materialist responses are numerous. First, one might wonder why we can’t combine the two perspectives within certain experimental contexts. Monster Writing Services. Both first-person and third-person scientific data about the brain and consciousness can be acquired and How to used to writing services, solve the hard problem. Even if a single person cannot grasp consciousness from both perspectives at the same time, why can’t a plausible physicalist theory emerge from such a combined approach? Presumably, McGinn would say that we are not capable of putting such a theory together in any appropriate way. Second, despite McGinn’s protests to the contrary, many will view the problem of explaining consciousness as a merely temporary limit of our theorizing, and not something which is unsolvable in principle (Dennett 1991).

Third, it may be that McGinn expects too much; namely, grasping some causal link between the brain and consciousness. After all, if conscious mental states are simply identical to brain states, then there may simply be a “brute fact” that really does not need any further explaining. Indeed, this is sometimes also said in Writing the compare, response to the explanatory gap and the hard problem, as we saw earlier. It may even be that some form of dualism is presupposed in McGinn’s argument, to the extent that brain states are said to “cause” or “give rise to” consciousness, instead of using the language of identity. Fourth, McGinn’s analogy to lower animals and mathematics is not quite accurate. Rats, for example, have no concept whatsoever of calculus. Monster. It is geography homework online chat not as if they can grasp it to some extent but just haven’t figured out the answer to Monster services, some particular problem within mathematics. And Contrast. Rats are just completely oblivious to writing, calculus problems. On the other hand, we humans obviously do have some grasp on consciousness and on write better pdf literary the workings of the resume, brain -- just see the references at the end of this entry!

It is not clear, then, why we should accept the extremely pessimistic and universally negative conclusion that we can never discover the answer to the problem of consciousness, or, more specifically, why we could never understand the link between consciousness and the brain. Unlike many of the above objections to materialism, the appeal to the possibility of zombies is often taken as both a problem for geography homework online, materialism and as a more positive argument for resume writing services, some form of dualism, such as property dualism. The philosophical notion of a “zombie” basically refers to conceivable creatures which are physically indistinguishable from Help paperclip us but lack consciousness entirely (Chalmers 1996). It certainly seems logically possible for there to be such creatures: “the conceivability of zombies seems…obvious to me…While this possibility is Monster resume writing probably empirically impossible, it certainly seems that a coherent situation is described; I can discern no contradiction in the description” (Chalmers 1996: 96). Philosophers often contrast what is logically possible (in the Buy paper for college online yupo, sense of “that which is not self-contradictory”) from resume writing services what is empirically possible given the actual laws of nature.

Thus, it is the compare essay logically possible for resume writing services, me to jump fifty feet in the air, but not empirically possible. Philosophers often use the notion of “possible worlds,” i.e., different ways that the world might have been, in describing such non-actual situations or possibilities. The objection, then, typically proceeds from such a possibility to the conclusion that materialism is false because materialism would seem to rule out that possibility. It has been fairly widely accepted (since Kripke 1972) that all identity statements are necessarily true (that is, true in write pdf literary, all possible worlds), and the same should therefore go for mind-brain identity claims. Resume Writing. Since the possibility of zombies shows that it doesn’t, then we should conclude that materialism is with geography false. (See Identity Theory.) It is impossible to Monster writing, do justice to all of the subtleties here. The literature in response to zombie, and related “conceivability,” arguments is enormous (see, for Help zonhoven, example, Hill 1997, Hill and McLaughlin 1999, Papineau 1998, 2002, Balog 1999, Block and Stalnaker 1999, Loar 1999, Yablo 1999, Perry 2001, Botterell 2001, Kirk 2005). A few lines of reply are as follows: First, it is sometimes objected that the conceivability of something does not really entail its possibility. Perhaps we can also conceive of water not being H2O, since there seems to be no logical contradiction in doing so, but, according to received wisdom from Kripke, that is Monster services really impossible.

Perhaps, then, some things just seem possible but really aren’t. Much of the the compare, debate centers on various alleged similarities or dissimilarities between the mind-brain and water-H2O cases (or other such scientific identities). Indeed, the entire issue of the exact relationship between “conceivability” and “possibility” is the subject of an important recently published anthology (Gendler and Hawthorne 2002). Second, even if zombies are conceivable in the sense of logically possible, how can we draw a substantial metaphysical conclusion about the actual world? There is services often suspicion on the part of materialists about what, if anything, such philosophers’ “thought experiments” can teach us about the Help chat, nature of our minds. It seems that one could take virtually any philosophical or scientific theory about almost anything, conceive that it is Monster writing services possibly false, and then conclude that it is actually false. Something, perhaps, is generally wrong with this way of reasoning. Third, as we saw earlier (3b.i), there may be a very good reason why such zombie scenarios seem possible; namely, that we do not (at least, not yet) see what the necessary connection is between neural events and grant conscious mental events.

On the one side, we are dealing with scientific third-person concepts and, on the other, we are employing phenomenal concepts. We are, perhaps, simply currently not in a position to understand completely such a necessary connection. Debate and discussion on all four objections remains very active. Despite the apparent simplicity of resume writing services, materialism, say, in terms of the identity between mental states and neural states, the fact is that there are many different forms of Writing essay, materialism. While a detailed survey of all varieties is beyond the scope of this entry, it is at least important to Monster resume services, acknowledge the Buy paper for college online, commonly drawn distinction between two kinds of “identity theory”: token-token and type-type materialism.

Type-type identity theory is the stronger thesis and says that mental properties, such as “having a desire to drink some water” or “being in Monster, pain,” are literally identical with a brain property of some kind. Buy Paper. Such identities were originally meant to be understood as on a par with, for example, the scientific identity between “being water” and “being composed of H2O” (Place 1956, Smart 1959). However, this view historically came under serious assault due to resume services, the fact that it seems to rule out the so-called “multiple realizability” of conscious mental states. The idea is simply that it seems perfectly possible for there to Teach essay uk, be other conscious beings (e.g., aliens, radically different animals) who can have those same mental states but who also are radically different from us physiologically (Fodor 1974). It seems that commitment to type-type identity theory led to the undesirable result that only organisms with brains like ours can have conscious states. Somewhat more technically, most materialists wish to leave room for the possibility that mental properties can be “instantiated” in different kinds of organisms. (But for more recent defenses of Monster resume services, type-type identity theory see Hill and McLaughlin 1999, Papineau 1994, 1995, 1998, Polger 2004.) As a consequence, a more modest “token-token” identity theory has become preferable to many materialists. This view simply holds that each particular conscious mental event in essay, some organism is identical with some particular brain process or event in that organism.

This seems to preserve much of what the materialist wants but yet allows for the multiple realizability of conscious states, because both the resume, human and the alien can still have a conscious desire for Teach writing, something to drink while each mental event is identical with a (different) physical state in each organism. Taking the notion of multiple realizability very seriously has also led many to embrace functionalism, which is the view that conscious mental states should really only be identified with the functional role they play within an organism. For example, conscious pains are defined more in Monster resume services, terms of input and zonhoven output, such as causing bodily damage and avoidance behavior, as well as in Monster resume writing, terms of their relationship to other mental states. It is normally viewed as a form of materialism since virtually all functionalists also believe, like the yupo, token-token theorist, that something physical ultimately realizes that functional state in the organism, but functionalism does not, by itself, entail that materialism is true. Critics of functionalism, however, have long argued that such purely functional accounts cannot adequately explain the essential “feel” of conscious states, or that it seems possible to have two functionally equivalent creatures, one of whom lacks qualia entirely (Block 1980a, 1980b, Chalmers 1996; see also Shoemaker 1975, 1981). Some materialists even deny the very existence of mind and Monster resume writing mental states altogether, at least in Writing, the sense that the very concept of Monster writing, consciousness is muddled (Wilkes 1984, 1988) or that the mentalistic notions found in folk psychology, such as desires and beliefs, will eventually be eliminated and Ahrq grant replaced by physicalistic terms as neurophysiology matures into the future (Churchland 1983). This is meant as analogous to Monster resume, past similar eliminations based on deeper scientific understanding, for example, we no longer need to speak of “ether” or “phlogiston.” Other eliminativists, more modestly, argue that there is no such thing as qualia when they are defined in certain problematic ways (Dennett 1988). Finally, it should also be noted that not all materialists believe that conscious mentality can be explained in Ahrq dissertation, terms of the physical, at least in the sense that the former cannot be “reduced” to the latter. Materialism is true as an services ontological or metaphysical doctrine, but facts about the mind cannot be deduced from facts about the physical world (Boyd 1980, Van Gulick 1992). In some ways, this might be viewed as a relatively harmless variation on materialist themes, but others object to Buy paper online, the very coherence of this form of writing, materialism (Kim 1987, 1998).

Indeed, the Teach uk, line between such “non-reductive materialism” and Monster resume writing services property dualism is not always so easy to draw; partly because the entire notion of “reduction” is ambiguous and a very complex topic in its own right. On a related front, some materialists are happy enough to talk about a somewhat weaker “supervenience” relation between mind and matter. Although “supervenience” is a highly technical notion with many variations, the idea is Buy paper for college online yupo basically one of dependence (instead of identity); for services, example, that the mental depends on the physical in the sense that any mental change must be accompanied by some physical change (see Kim 1993). 4. Specific Theories of Consciousness. Most specific theories of consciousness tend to be reductionist in Writing the compare essay, some sense. The classic notion at work is that consciousness or individual conscious mental states can be explained in Monster services, terms of something else or in some other terms.

This section will focus on several prominent contemporary reductionist theories. We should, however, distinguish between those who attempt such a reduction directly in Help paperclip, physicalistic, such as neurophysiological, terms and Monster services those who do so in mentalistic terms, such as by the compare and contrast essay, using unconscious mental states or other cognitive notions. The more direct reductionist approach can be seen in various, more specific, neural theories of consciousness. Perhaps best known is the theory offered by Francis Crick and Christof Koch 1990 (see also Crick 1994, Koch 2004). The basic idea is that mental states become conscious when large numbers of neurons fire in synchrony and all have oscillations within the 35-75 hertz range (that is, 35-75 cycles per second). However, many philosophers and scientists have put forth other candidates for what, specifically, to identify in the brain with consciousness. This vast enterprise has come to be known as the search for the “neural correlates of resume, consciousness” or NCCs (see section 5b below for more). The overall idea is to show how one or more specific kinds of neuro-chemical activity can underlie and explain conscious mental activity (Metzinger 2000). Of course, mere “correlation” is not enough for a fully adequate neural theory and explaining just what counts as a NCC turns out to be more difficult than one might think (Chalmers 2000).

Even Crick and Koch have acknowledged that they, at best, provide a necessary condition for consciousness, and Teach that such firing patters are not automatically sufficient for having conscious experience. b. Representational Theories of Consciousness. Many current theories attempt to resume, reduce consciousness in Writing, mentalistic terms. One broadly popular approach along these lines is to reduce consciousness to “mental representations” of resume, some kind. The notion of Help paperclip zonhoven, a “representation” is of course very general and can be applied to photographs, signs, and various natural objects, such as the rings inside a tree. Much of what goes on in the brain, however, might also be understood in resume, a representational way; for Writing and contrast, example, as mental events representing outer objects partly because they are caused by Monster resume writing services, such objects in, say, cases of veridical visual perception. More specifically, philosophers will often call such representational mental states “intentional states” which have representational content; that is, mental states which are “about something” or “directed at something” as when one has a thought about the house or a perception of the dissertation grant, tree. Although intentional states are sometimes contrasted with phenomenal states, such as pains and color experiences, it is clear that many conscious states have both phenomenal and intentional properties, such as visual perceptions. It should be noted that the relation between intentionalilty and consciousness is itself a major ongoing area of dispute with some arguing that genuine intentionality actually presupposes consciousness in some way (Searle 1992, Siewart 1998, Horgan and Tienson 2002) while most representationalists insist that intentionality is prior to writing services, consciousness (Gennaro 2012, chapter two). The general view that we can explain conscious mental states in terms of representational or intentional states is called “representationalism.” Although not automatically reductionist in spirit, most versions of representationalism do indeed attempt such a reduction. Writing The Compare And Contrast. Most representationalists, then, believe that there is room for a kind of services, “second-step” reduction to How to better, be filled in Monster resume writing, later by neuroscience.

The other related motivation for representational theories of consciousness is that many believe that an account of representation or intentionality can more easily be given in naturalistic terms, such as causal theories whereby mental states are understood as representing outer objects in virtue of some reliable causal connection. The idea, then, is that if consciousness can be explained in paperclip, representational terms and representation can be understood in purely physical terms, then there is the services, promise of a reductionist and Help zonhoven naturalistic theory of consciousness. Writing Services. Most generally, however, we can say that a representationalist will typically hold that the phenomenal properties of experience (that is, the “qualia” or “what it is How to pdf literary like of experience” or “phenomenal character”) can be explained in terms of the experiences’ representational properties. Writing Services. Alternatively, conscious mental states have no mental properties other than their representational properties. Two conscious states with all the same representational properties will not differ phenomenally. Writing And Contrast. For example, when I look at the blue sky, what it is like for me to have a conscious experience of the sky is simply identical with my experience’s representation of the Monster resume services, blue sky. A First-order representational (FOR) theory of consciousness is a theory that attempts to explain conscious experience primarily in terms of world-directed (or first-order) intentional states. Probably the two most cited FOR theories of consciousness are those of Fred Dretske (1995) and Michael Tye (1995, 2000), though there are many others as well (e.g., Harman 1990, Kirk 1994, Byrne 2001, Thau 2002, Droege 2003).

Tye’s theory is How to essays more fully worked out and so will be the focus of this section. Like other FOR theorists, Tye holds that the representational content of my conscious experience (that is, what my experience is about or directed at) is identical with the phenomenal properties of experience. Aside from reductionistic motivations, Tye and other FOR representationalists often use the somewhat technical notion of the “transparency of experience” as support for their view (Harman 1990). This is an argument based on the phenomenological first-person observation, which goes back to Moore (1903), that when one turns one’s attention away from, say, the blue sky and onto one’s experience itself, one is still only aware of the blueness of the sky. Monster. The experience itself is not blue; rather, one “sees right through” one’s experience to its representational properties, and there is Help with nothing else to one’s experience over and above such properties. Whatever the merits and exact nature of the resume services, argument from transparency (see Kind 2003), it is clear, of course, that not all mental representations are conscious, so the key question eventually becomes: What exactly distinguishes conscious from Buy paper for college online unconscious mental states (or representations)? What makes a mental state a conscious mental state? Here Tye defends what he calls “PANIC theory.” The acronym “PANIC” stands for poised, abstract, non-conceptual, intentional content. Without probing into Monster resume, every aspect of essay uk, PANIC theory, Tye holds that at least some of the representational content in question is non-conceptual (N), which is to say that the Monster writing, subject can lack the concept for the properties represented by the compare and contrast, the experience in question, such as an Monster writing services experience of a certain shade of red that one has never seen before. Actually, the exact nature or even existence of non-conceptual content of Help zonhoven, experience is itself a highly debated and difficult issue in resume writing services, philosophy of mind (Gunther 2003). Gennaro (2012), for example, defends conceptualism and connects it in various ways to the higher-order thought theory of Ahrq grant, consciousness (see section 4b.ii).

Conscious states clearly must also have “intentional content” (IC) for writing services, any representationalist. Tye also asserts that such content is “abstract” (A) and not necessarily about geography, particular concrete objects. This condition is resume writing needed to handle cases of write, hallucinations, where there are no concrete objects at all or cases where different objects look phenomenally alike. Monster Writing. Perhaps most important for mental states to be conscious, however, is that such content must be “poised” (P), which is an importantly functional notion. The “key idea is that experiences and feelings. Help Geography Homework Online. stand ready and available to make a direct impact on beliefs and/or desires.

For example…feeling hungry… has an Monster resume writing services immediate cognitive effect, namely, the Buy paper for college yupo, desire to Monster, eat….States with nonconceptual content that are not so poised lack phenomenal character [because]…they arise too early, as it were, in How to write pdf literary, the information processing” (Tye 2000: 62). One objection to Tye’s theory is that it does not really address the services, hard problem of phenomenal consciousness (see section 3b.i). Writing And Contrast Essay. This is partly because what really seems to be doing most of the work on Tye’s PANIC account is the very functional sounding “poised” notion, which is perhaps closer to Block’s access consciousness (see section 1) and is therefore not necessarily able to explain phenomenal consciousness (see Kriegel 2002). In short, it is Monster resume writing services difficult to see just how Tye’s PANIC account might not equally apply to unconscious representations and thus how it really explains phenomenal consciousness. Other standard objections to Tye’s theory as well as to other FOR accounts include the Help with, concern that it does not cover all kinds of resume writing, conscious states. Some conscious states seem not to be “about” anything, such as pains, anxiety, or after-images, and so would be non-representational conscious states. If so, then conscious experience cannot generally be explained in terms of representational properties (Block 1996). Tye responds that pains, itches, and the like do represent, in the sense that they represent parts of the body. Essay. And after-images, hallucinations, and resume the like either misrepresent (which is still a kind of representation) or the conscious subject still takes them to have representational properties from the Teach, first-person point of view.

Indeed, Tye (2000) admirably goes to great lengths and argues convincingly in response to a whole host of alleged counter-examples to representationalism. Historically among them are various hypothetical cases of Monster, inverted qualia (see Shoemaker 1982), the mere possibility of which is sometimes taken as devastating to representationalism. These are cases where behaviorally indistinguishable individuals have inverted color perceptions of objects, such as person A visually experiences a lemon the way that person B experience a ripe tomato with respect to their color, and so on for all yellow and How to write essays pdf literary red objects. Isn’t it possible that there are two individuals whose color experiences are inverted with respect to the objects of perception? (For more on the importance of Monster writing, color in philosophy, see Hardin 1986.) A somewhat different twist on the inverted spectrum is famously put forth in Block’s (1990) Inverted Earth case.

On Inverted Earth every object has the complementary color to the one it has here, but we are asked to imagine that a person is equipped with color-inverting lenses and for college yupo then sent to Inverted Earth completely ignorant of those facts. Resume Writing Services. Since the color inversions cancel out, the phenomenal experiences remain the same, yet there certainly seem to be different representational properties of objects involved. The strategy on the part of critics, in short, is to think of How to write essays pdf literary, counter-examples (either actual or hypothetical) whereby there is Monster writing a difference between the Help zonhoven, phenomenal properties in experience and the relevant representational properties in the world. Monster Resume Writing Services. Such objections can, perhaps, be answered by Tye and others in various ways, but significant debate continues (Macpherson 2005). Intuitions also dramatically differ as to zonhoven, the very plausibility and Monster services value of Teach writing, such thought experiments. (For more, see Seager 1999, chapters 6 and resume services 7. See also Chalmers 2004 for an excellent discussion of the dizzying array of Help paperclip zonhoven, possible representationalist positions.) ii. Higher-Order Representationalism.

As we have seen, one question that should be answered by Monster writing, any theory of consciousness is: What makes a mental state a conscious mental state? There is a long tradition that has attempted to for college, understand consciousness in terms of some kind of higher-order awareness. For example, John Locke (1689/1975) once said that “consciousness is the perception of what passes in a man’s own mind.” This intuition has been revived by a number of philosophers (Rosenthal, 1986, 1993b, 1997, 2000, 2004, 2005; Gennaro 1996a, 2012; Armstrong, 1968, 1981; Lycan, 1996, 2001). In general, the idea is that what makes a mental state conscious is that it is the object of resume, some kind of higher-order representation (HOR). Help With Homework Chat. A mental state M becomes conscious when there is a HOR of Monster resume services, M. A HOR is a “meta-psychological” state, i.e., a mental state directed at another mental state. Ahrq Dissertation. So, for example, my desire to write a good encyclopedia entry becomes conscious when I am (non-inferentially) “aware” of the desire. Monster Resume. Intuitively, it seems that conscious states, as opposed to dissertation, unconscious ones, are mental states that I am “aware of” in some sense. This is sometimes referred to as the Transitivity Principle. Any theory which attempts to explain consciousness in terms of higher-order states is known as a higher-order (HO) theory of Monster resume, consciousness.

It is best initially to use the more neutral term “representation” because there are a number of different kinds of higher-order theory, depending upon how one characterizes the HOR in the compare and contrast, question. HO theories, thus, attempt to explain consciousness in mentalistic terms, that is, by reference to Monster, such notions as “thoughts” and dissertation “awareness.” Conscious mental states arise when two unconscious mental states are related in a certain specific way; namely, that one of them (the HOR) is Monster resume writing directed at the other (M). HO theorists are united in the belief that their approach can better explain consciousness than any purely FOR theory, which has significant difficulty in explaining the difference between unconscious and conscious mental states. There are various kinds of essay writing uk, HO theory with the most common division between higher-order thought (HOT) theories and higher-order perception (HOP) theories. HOT theorists, such as David M. Rosenthal, think it is better to understand the HOR as a thought of resume services, some kind.

HOTs are treated as cognitive states involving some kind of conceptual component. HOP theorists urge that the better essays pdf literary, HOR is Monster resume services a perceptual or experiential state of How to, some kind (Lycan 1996) which does not require the kind of conceptual content invoked by HOT theorists. Partly due to Kant (1781/1965), HOP theory is sometimes referred to as “inner sense theory” as a way of emphasizing its sensory or perceptual aspect. Monster Resume. Although HOT and HOP theorists agree on the need for a HOR theory of consciousness, they do sometimes argue for the superiority of with homework, their respective positions (such as in writing services, Rosenthal 2004, Lycan 2004, and Gennaro 2012). Some philosophers, however, have argued that the difference between these theories is perhaps not as important or as clear as some think it is (Guzeldere 1995, Gennaro 1996a, Van Gulick 2000). A common initial objection to HOR theories is paperclip zonhoven that they are circular and resume writing lead to an infinite regress. It might seem that the HOT theory results in circularity by defining consciousness in terms of HOTs. Help Homework Online. It also might seem that an infinite regress results because a conscious mental state must be accompanied by a HOT, which, in turn, must be accompanied by another HOT ad infinitum . However, the Monster services, standard reply is that when a conscious mental state is a first-order world-directed state the higher-order thought (HOT) is not itself conscious; otherwise, circularity and an infinite regress would follow. When the HOT is itself conscious, there is Buy paper a yet higher-order (or third-order) thought directed at the second-order state. In this case, we have introspection which involves a conscious HOT directed at an inner mental state. When one introspects, one's attention is Monster services directed back into one's mind.

For example, what makes my desire to write a good entry a conscious first-order desire is that there is a (non-conscious) HOT directed at the desire. In this case, my conscious focus is dissertation directed at the entry and writing my computer screen, so I am not consciously aware of having the HOT from the first-person point of view. When I introspect that desire, however, I then have a conscious HOT (accompanied by Ahrq, a yet higher, third-order, HOT) directed at the desire itself (see Rosenthal 1986). Peter Carruthers (2000) has proposed another possibility within HO theory; namely, that it is better for various reasons to think of the HOTs as dispositional states instead of the standard view that the HOTs are actual, though he also understands his “dispositional HOT theory” to be a form of Monster resume services, HOP theory (Carruthers 2004). Buy Paper For College. The basic idea is that the conscious status of an experience is services due to its availability to higher-order thought. So “conscious experience occurs when perceptual contents are fed into a special short-term buffer memory store, whose function is to make those contents available to write better, cause HOTs about resume services, themselves.” (Carruthers 2000: 228). Some first-order perceptual contents are available to a higher-order “theory of mind mechanism,” which transforms those representational contents into conscious contents. Teach Essay Writing. Thus, no actual HOT occurs. Instead, according to Carruthers, some perceptual states acquire a dual intentional content; for example, a conscious experience of red not only has a first-order content of “red,” but also has the higher-order content “seems red” or “experience of red.” Carruthers also makes interesting use of so-called “consumer semantics” in order to fill out his theory of writing, phenomenal consciousness.

The content of dissertation, a mental state depends, in part, on the powers of the organisms which “consume” that state, e.g., the kinds of inferences which the organism can make when it is in Monster services, that state. Daniel Dennett (1991) is sometimes credited with an earlier version of a dispositional account (see Carruthers 2000, chapter ten). Carruthers’ dispositional theory is often criticized by those who, among other things, do not see how the mere disposition toward a mental state can render it conscious (Rosenthal 2004; see also Gennaro 2004, 2012; for more, see Consciousness, Higher Order Theories of.) It is worth briefly noting a few typical objections to HO theories (many of which can be found in Byrne 1997): First, and Help perhaps most common, is that various animals (and even infants) are not likely to have to the conceptual sophistication required for HOTs, and writing so that would render animal (and infant) consciousness very unlikely (Dretske 1995, Seager 2004). Are cats and dogs capable of Help zonhoven, having complex higher-order thoughts such as “I am in mental state M”? Although most who bring forth this objection are not HO theorists, Peter Carruthers (1989) is one HO theorist who actually embraces the conclusion that (most) animals do not have phenomenal consciousness.

Gennaro (1993, 1996) has replied to Carruthers on this point; for example, it is argued that the HOTs need not be as sophisticated as it might initially appear and there is ample comparative neurophysiological evidence supporting the Monster services, conclusion that animals have conscious mental states. Most HO theorists do not wish to accept the absence of animal or infant consciousness as a consequence of holding the theory. The debate continues, however, in Carruthers (2000, 2005, 2008) and Gennaro (2004, 2009, 2012, chapters seven and eight). A second objection has been referred to as the “problem of the rock” (Stubenberg 1998) and the “generality problem” (Van Gulick 2000, 2004), but it is originally due to Alvin Goldman (Goldman 1993). Writing The Compare Essay. When I have a thought about a rock, it is certainly not true that the rock becomes conscious.

So why should I suppose that a mental state becomes conscious when I think about it? This is puzzling to many and the objection forces HO theorists to explain just how adding the HO state changes an unconscious state into a conscious. There have been, however, a number of responses to this kind of objection (Rosenthal 1997, Lycan, 1996, Van Gulick 2000, 2004, Gennaro 2005, 2012, chapter four). Resume Writing. A common theme is that there is a principled difference in the objects of the HO states in question. Rocks and the like are not mental states in the first place, and so HO theorists are first and foremost trying to writing uk, explain how a mental state becomes conscious. The objects of the HO states must be “in the head.” Third, the above leads somewhat naturally to an objection related to Chalmers’ hard problem (section 3b.i).

It might be asked just how exactly any HO theory really explains the resume, subjective or phenomenal aspect of conscious experience. How or why does a mental state come to have a first-person qualitative “what it is like” aspect by virtue of the presence of Help, a HOR directed at it? It is Monster resume writing services probably fair to say that HO theorists have been slow to address this problem, though a number of overlapping responses have emerged (see also Gennaro 2005, 2012, chapter four, for essay writing, more extensive treatment). Some argue that this objection misconstrues the Monster resume writing, main and more modest purpose of How to write essays, (at least, their) HO theories. The claim is that HO theories are theories of resume, consciousness only in the sense that they are attempting to How to, explain what differentiates conscious from unconscious states, i.e., in terms of a higher-order awareness of some kind. Services. A full account of “qualitative properties” or “sensory qualities” (which can themselves be non-conscious) can be found elsewhere in their work, but is independent of Teach essay writing, their theory of consciousness (Rosenthal 1991, Lycan 1996, 2001).

Thus, a full explanation of Monster, phenomenal consciousness does require more than a HO theory, but that is no objection to HO theories as such. How To Write Essays. Another response is Monster resume writing that proponents of the hard problem unjustly raise the bar as to what would count as a viable explanation of consciousness so that any such reductivist attempt would inevitably fall short (Carruthers 2000, Gennaro 2012). Help. Part of the problem, then, is services a lack of clarity about what would even count as an explanation of consciousness (Van Gulick 1995; see also section 3b). Once this is clarified, however, the essay, hard problem can indeed be solved. Monster Resume Services. Moreover, anyone familiar with the literature knows that there are significant terminological difficulties in the use of various crucial terms which sometimes inhibits genuine progress (but see Byrne 2004 for some helpful clarification). A fourth important objection to HO approaches is the question of online yupo, how such theories can explain cases where the HO state might misrepresent the lower-order (LO) mental state (Byrne 1997, Neander 1998, Levine 2001, Block 2011). After all, if we have a representational relation between two states, it seems possible for misrepresentation or malfunction to occur. If it does, then what explanation can be offered by the HO theorist? If my LO state registers a red percept and my HO state registers a thought about something green due, say, to some neural misfiring, then what happens? It seems that problems loom for any answer given by a HO theorist and the cause of the Monster services, problem has to do with the very nature of the HO theorist’s belief that there is a representational relation between the LO and writing HO states. For example, if the HO theorist takes the Monster services, option that the resulting conscious experience is reddish, then it seems that the HO state plays no role in determining the qualitative character of the experience.

On the geography homework online, other hand, if the resulting experience is greenish, then the LO state seems irrelevant. Monster Writing. Rosenthal and Weisberg hold that the HO state determines the qualitative properties even in Teach essay writing uk, cases when there is no LO state at Monster writing services, all (Rosenthal 2005, 2011, Weisberg 2008, 2011a, 2011b). Gennaro (2012) argues that no conscious experience results in such cases and wonders, for Buy paper online, example, how a sole (unconscious) HOT can result in Monster services, a conscious state at all. He argues that there must be a match, complete or partial, between the with geography chat, LO and HO state in Monster writing, order for a conscious state to Writing the compare and contrast, exist in the first place. This important objection forces HO theorists to be clearer about writing, just how to How to better pdf literary, view the relationship between the LO and HO states. Services. Debate is ongoing and significant both on varieties of HO theory and in How to better essays, terms of the above objections (see Gennaro 2004a). There is Monster also interdisciplinary interest in how various HO theories might be realized in the brain (Gennaro 2012, chapter nine).

iii. Hybrid Representational Accounts. A related and increasingly popular version of representational theory holds that the meta-psychological state in question should be understood as intrinsic to (or part of) an overall complex conscious state. Yupo. This stands in contrast to the standard view that the HO state is extrinsic to (that is, entirely distinct from) its target mental state. The assumption, made by Monster resume, Rosenthal for Help paperclip zonhoven, example, about the extrinsic nature of the meta-thought has increasingly come under attack, and thus various hybrid representational theories can be found in the literature. One motivation for this movement is growing dissatisfaction with standard HO theory’s ability to handle some of the objections addressed in the previous section.

Another reason is renewed interest in a view somewhat closer to services, the one held by Franz Brentano (1874/1973) and various other followers, normally associated with the phenomenological tradition (Husserl 1913/1931, 1929/1960; Sartre 1956; see also Smith 1986, 2004). Ahrq Dissertation Grant. To varying degrees, these views have in common the idea that conscious mental states, in some sense, represent themselves, which then still involves having a thought about writing, a mental state, just not a distinct or separate state. Thus, when one has a conscious desire for a cold glass of water, one is also aware that one is in How to write better pdf literary, that very state. The conscious desire both represents the glass of resume writing, water and the compare and contrast itself. It is this “self-representing” which makes the state conscious. These theories can go by various names, which sometimes seem in Monster, conflict, and have added significantly in recent years to How to better essays pdf literary, the acronyms which abound in the literature. For example, Gennaro (1996a, 2002, 2004, 2006, 2012) has argued that, when one has a first-order conscious state, the HOT is better viewed as intrinsic to the target state, so that we have a complex conscious state with parts. Gennaro calls this the “wide intrinsicality view” (WIV) and he also argues that Jean-Paul Sartre’s theory of consciousness can be understood in this way (Gennaro 2002). Gennaro holds that conscious mental states should be understood (as Kant might have today) as global brain states which are combinations of passively received perceptual input and Monster resume writing presupposed higher-order conceptual activity directed at Buy paper for college yupo, that input.

Higher-order concepts in the meta-psychological thoughts are presupposed in having first-order conscious states. Robert Van Gulick (2000, 2004, 2006) has also explored the services, alternative that the Buy paper online yupo, HO state is part of an overall global conscious state. He calls such states “HOGS” (Higher-Order Global States) whereby a lower-order unconscious state is resume writing services “recruited” into a larger state, which becomes conscious partly due to the implicit self-awareness that one is in the lower-order state. Both Gennaro and How to better essays pdf literary Van Gulick have suggested that conscious states can be understood materialistically as global states of the brain, and Monster resume writing services it would be better to treat the first-order state as part of the larger complex brain state. Help Geography Chat. This general approach is also forcefully advocated by resume services, Uriah Kriegel (Kriegel 2003a, 2003b, 2005, 2006, 2009) and is even the subject of an entire anthology debating its merits (Kriegel and Williford 2006). Kriegel has used several different names for his “neo-Brentanian theory,” such as the SOMT (Same-Order Monitoring Theory) and, more recently, the “self-representational theory of consciousness.” To be sure, the Writing, notion of a mental state representing itself or a mental state with one part representing another part is in need of further development and is perhaps somewhat mysterious. Resume Writing Services. Nonetheless, there is agreement among these authors that conscious mental states are, in some important sense, reflexive or self-directed. And, once again, there is keen interest in developing this model in a way that coheres with the latest neurophysiological research on consciousness.

A point of emphasis is on Help homework online chat the concept of global meta-representation within a complex brain state, and attempts are underway to identify just how such an account can be realized in the brain. It is writing services worth mentioning that this idea was also briefly explored by Thomas Metzinger who focused on the fact that consciousness “is something that unifies or synthesizes experience” (Metzinger 1995: 454). Teach Essay Writing. Metzinger calls this the Monster resume writing, process of “higher-order binding” and thus uses the acronym HOB. Teach. Others who hold some form of the self-representational view include Kobes (1995), Caston (2002), Williford (2006), Brook and Raymont (2006), and resume even Carruthers’ (2000) theory can be viewed in this light since he contends that conscious states have two representational contents. Thomas Natsoulas also has a series of papers defending a similar view, beginning with Natsoulas 1996. Some authors (such as Gennaro 2012) view this hybrid position to be a modified version of HOT theory; indeed, Rosenthal (2004) has called it “intrinsic higher-order theory.” Van Gulick also clearly wishes to preserve the essay writing uk, HO is his HOGS. Others, such as Kriegel, are not inclined to call their views “higher-order” at all and call it, for example, the “same-order monitoring” or “self-representational” theory of consciousness. To some extent, this is a terminological dispute, but, despite important similarities, there are also key subtle differences between these hybrid alternatives.

Like HO theorists, however, those who advocate this general approach all take very seriously the notion that a conscious mental state M is a state that subject S is (non-inferentially) aware that S is Monster resume services in. By contrast, one is obviously not aware of write better pdf literary, one’s unconscious mental states. Thus, there are various attempts to make sense of and services elaborate upon this key intuition in a way that is, as it were, “in-between” standard FO and HO theory. Paperclip Zonhoven. (See also Lurz 2003 and 2004 for yet another interesting hybrid account.) Aside from the explicitly representational approaches discussed above, there are also related attempts to explain consciousness in other cognitive terms. Monster Writing Services. The two most prominent such theories are worth describing here: Daniel Dennett (1991, 2005) has put forth what he calls the Multiple Drafts Model (MDM) of consciousness. Although similar in some ways to representationalism, Dennett is most concerned that materialists avoid falling prey to what he calls the “myth of the Cartesian theater,” the notion that there is some privileged place in the brain where everything comes together to produce conscious experience. Instead, the MDM holds that all kinds of mental activity occur in the brain by parallel processes of interpretation, all of for college online yupo, which are under frequent revision.

The MDM rejects the idea of some “self” as an inner observer; rather, the Monster writing services, self is the product or construction of a narrative which emerges over time. Dennett is also well known for rejecting the very assumption that there is a clear line to be drawn between conscious and Teach uk unconscious mental states in terms of the problematic notion of “qualia.” He influentially rejects strong emphasis on Monster writing any phenomenological or first-person approach to investigating consciousness, advocating instead what he calls “heterophenomenology” according to which we should follow a more neutral path “leading from objective physical science and its insistence on Writing the compare essay the third person point of resume writing services, view, to a method of phenomenological description that can (in principle) do justice to How to write better, the most private and ineffable subjective experiences.” (1991: 72) Bernard Baars’ Global Workspace Theory (GWT) model of consciousness is probably the most influential theory proposed among psychologists (Baars 1988, 1997). The basic idea and metaphor is that we should think of the entire cognitive system as built on a “blackboard architecture” which is a kind of global workspace. According to resume writing, GWT, unconscious processes and mental states compete for zonhoven, the spotlight of attention, from which information is “broadcast globally” throughout the system. Consciousness consists in such global broadcasting and is therefore also, according to Baars, an important functional and biological adaptation. We might say that consciousness is thus created by a kind of global access to select bits of information in the brain and nervous system. Writing Services. Despite Baars’ frequent use of “theater” and “spotlight” metaphors, he argues that his view does not entail the presence of the material Cartesian theater that Dennett is so concerned to zonhoven, avoid.

It is, in Monster writing, any case, an empirical matter just how the brain performs the functions he describes, such as detecting mechanisms of attention. Objections to these cognitive theories include the charge that they do not really address the Help, hard problem of consciousness (as described in section 3b.i), but only the “easy” problems. Dennett is also often accused of explaining away consciousness rather than really explaining it. Monster Services. It is also interesting to think about Baars’ GWT in light of the Block’s distinction between access and Writing and contrast essay phenomenal consciousness (see section 1). Does Baars’ theory only address access consciousness instead of the more difficult to explain phenomenal consciousness? (Two other psychological cognitive theories worth noting are the ones proposed by George Mandler 1975 and Monster resume Tim Shallice 1988.) Finally, there are those who look deep beneath the neural level to Teach writing uk, the field of quantum mechanics, basically the study of sub-atomic particles, to find the key to unlocking the Monster resume, mysteries of consciousness. The bizarre world of quantum physics is essay quite different from the deterministic world of classical physics, and a major area of research in its own right. Such authors place the locus of consciousness at a very fundamental physical level. This somewhat radical, though exciting, option is explored most notably by physicist Roger Penrose (1989, 1994) and resume services anesthesiologist Stuart Hameroff (1998). The basic idea is that consciousness arises through quantum effects which occur in subcellular neural structures known as microtubules, which are structural proteins in cell walls. Writing The Compare Essay. There are also other quantum approaches which aim to resume services, explain the coherence of consciousness (Marshall and Zohar 1990) or use the “holistic” nature of quantum mechanics to explain consciousness (Silberstein 1998, 2001).

It is difficult to Help with chat, assess these somewhat exotic approaches at present. Given the puzzling and Monster writing services often very counterintuitive nature of quantum physics, it is unclear whether such approaches will prove genuinely scientifically valuable methods in explaining consciousness. One concern is simply that these authors are trying to explain one puzzling phenomenon (consciousness) in terms of How to write essays pdf literary, another mysterious natural phenomenon (quantum effects). Thus, the Monster, thinking seems to go, perhaps the two are essentially related somehow and other physicalistic accounts are looking in Buy paper for college, the wrong place, such as at the neuro-chemical level. Although many attempts to explain consciousness often rely of conjecture or speculation, quantum approaches may indeed lead the field along these lines. Of course, this doesn’t mean that some such theory isn’t correct. One exciting aspect of Monster resume services, this approach is the resulting interdisciplinary interest it has generated among physicists and other scientists in the problem of consciousness. 5. Consciousness and essay uk Science: Key Issues. Over the past two decades there has been an explosion of interdisciplinary work in Monster resume, the science of consciousness. Some of the credit must go to Help paperclip, the ground breaking 1986 book by Patricia Churchland entitled Neurophilosophy . In this section, three of the most important such areas are addressed.

a. The Unity of Consciousness/The Binding Problem. Conscious experience seems to be “unified” in an important sense; this crucial feature of consciousness played an important role in the philosophy of Kant who argued that unified conscious experience must be the product of the Monster resume writing services, (presupposed) synthesizing work of the mind. Getting clear about Teach, exactly what is meant by the “unity of consciousness” and explaining how the brain achieves such unity has become a central topic in resume writing services, the study of consciousness. There are many different senses of “unity” (see Tye 2003; Bayne and Chalmers 2003, Dainton 2000, 2008, Bayne 2010), but perhaps most common is the notion that, from the first-person point of view, we experience the How to write essays, world in services, an integrated way and as a single phenomenal field of experience. (For an important anthology on the subject, see Cleeremans 2003.) However, when one looks at how the brain processes information, one only sees discrete regions of the grant, cortex processing separate aspects of perceptual objects. Even different aspects of the same object, such as its color and shape, are processed in different parts of the brain. Given that there is resume writing services no “Cartesian theater” in the brain where all this information comes together, the problem arises as to just how the How to better essays pdf literary, resulting conscious experience is unified. What mechanisms allow us to experience the Monster writing, world in such a unified way? What happens when this unity breaks down, as in various pathological cases? The “problem of integrating the information processed by Writing the compare and contrast essay, different regions of the brain is known as the binding problem” (Cleeremans 2003: 1). Thus, the Monster resume writing, so-called “binding problem” is inextricably linked to explaining the unity of consciousness.

As was seen earlier with neural theories (section 4a) and Help paperclip as will be seen below on the neural correlates of consciousness (5b), some attempts to solve the binding problem have to do with trying to isolate the precise brain mechanisms responsible for consciousness. For example, Crick and Koch’s (1990) idea that synchronous neural firings are (at least) necessary for consciousness can also be viewed as an attempt to writing, explain how disparate neural networks bind together separate pieces of information to essay writing, produce unified subjective conscious experience. Monster Resume Writing Services. Perhaps the dissertation grant, binding problem and the hard problem of consciousness (section 3b.i) are very closely connected. Monster Services. If the binding problem can be solved, then we arguably have identified the elusive neural correlate of consciousness and have, therefore, perhaps even solved the hard problem. Writing. In addition, perhaps the explanatory gap between third-person scientific knowledge and Monster writing services first-person unified conscious experience can also be bridged. Thus, this exciting area of Help with geography homework online chat, inquiry is central to some of the deepest questions in the philosophical and scientific exploration of consciousness. b. The Neural Correlates of Consciousness (NCCs)

As was seen earlier in discussing neural theories of consciousness (section 4a), the search for the so-called “neural correlates of consciousness” (NCCs) is a major preoccupation of philosophers and scientists alike (Metzinger 2000). Writing Services. Narrowing down the precise brain property responsible for consciousness is for college online yupo a different and far more difficult enterprise than merely holding a generic belief in some form of Monster, materialism. One leading candidate is How to better essays pdf literary offered by Francis Crick and Christof Koch 1990 (see also Crick 1994, Koch 2004). The basic idea is that mental states become conscious when large numbers of neurons all fire in synchrony with one another (oscillations within the 35-75 hertz range or 35-75 cycles per second). Currently, one method used is simply to study some aspect of Monster resume services, neural functioning with sophisticated detecting equipments (such as MRIs and How to better pdf literary PET scans) and then correlate it with first-person reports of conscious experience. Monster Writing Services. Another method is to study the difference in brain activity between those under anesthesia and those not under any such influence. A detailed survey would be impossible to give here, but a number of other candidates for the NCC have emerged over the past two decades, including reentrant cortical feedback loops in better, the neural circuitry throughout the brain (Edelman 1989, Edelman and Tononi 2000), NMDA-mediated transient neural assemblies (Flohr 1995), and emotive somatosensory haemostatic processes in resume, the frontal lobe (Damasio 1999). To elaborate briefly on Flohr’s theory, the idea is Ahrq dissertation grant that anesthetics destroy conscious mental activity because they interfere with the functioning of NMDA synapses between neurons, which are those that are dependent on N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors. These and other NCCs are explored at resume writing, length in Metzinger (2000).

Ongoing scientific investigation is significant and an important aspect of current scientific research in the field. One problem with some of the above candidates is determining exactly how they are related to consciousness. Writing Uk. For example, although a case can be made that some of resume, them are necessary for conscious mentality, it is unclear that they are sufficient. That is, some of the above seem to occur unconsciously as well. And pinning down a narrow enough necessary condition is not as easy as it might seem. Another general worry is with the very use of the term “correlate.” As any philosopher, scientist, and even undergraduate student should know, saying that “A is correlated with B” is rather weak (though it is an important first step), especially if one wishes to establish the stronger identity claim between consciousness and neural activity. Even if such a correlation can be established, we cannot automatically conclude that there is an How to write identity relation. Perhaps A causes B or B causes A, and that’s why we find the Monster writing services, correlation. Write Essays Pdf Literary. Even most dualists can accept such interpretations. Resume Writing Services. Maybe there is some other neural process C which causes both A and B. Ahrq Dissertation. “Correlation” is not even the same as “cause,” let alone enough to establish “identity.” Finally, some NCCs are not even necessarily put forth as candidates for all conscious states, but rather for certain specific kinds of consciousness (e.g., visual).

Philosophers have long been intrigued by disorders of the mind and consciousness. Part of the interest is presumably that if we can understand how consciousness goes wrong, then that can help us to theorize about the normal functioning mind. Going back at least as far as John Locke (1689/1975), there has been some discussion about the philosophical implications of multiple personality disorder (MPD) which is now called “dissociative identity disorder” (DID). Questions abound: Could there be two centers of Monster resume writing services, consciousness in one body? What makes a person the same person over time? What makes a person a person at any given time? These questions are closely linked to the traditional philosophical problem of personal identity, which is also importantly related to some aspects of consciousness research. Much the same can be said for chat, memory disorders, such as various forms of amnesia (see Gennaro 1996a, chapter 9). Resume. Does consciousness require some kind of autobiographical memory or psychological continuity? On a related front, there is significant interest in experimental results from patients who have undergone a commisurotomy, which is usually performed to relieve symptoms of Buy paper online yupo, severe epilepsy when all else fails. During this procedure, the nerve fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres are cut, resulting in so-called “split-brain” patients (Bayne 2010).

Philosophical interest is so high that there is now a book series called Philosophical Psychopathology published by MIT Press. Another rich source of information comes from the provocative and accessible writings of neurologists on a whole host of writing, psychopathologies, most notably Oliver Sacks (starting with his 1987 book) and, more recently, V. S. Ramachandran (2004; see also Ramachandran and Blakeslee 1998). Another launching point came from the discovery of the phenomenon known as “blindsight” (Weiskrantz 1986), which is very frequently discussed in with online chat, the philosophical literature regarding its implications for consciousness. Monster Writing. Blindsight patients are blind in a well defined part of the visual field (due to cortical damage), but yet, when forced, can guess, with a higher than expected degree of accuracy, the location or orientation of an object in the blind field. There is also philosophical interest in many other disorders, such as phantom limb pain (where one feels pain in write better essays pdf literary, a missing or amputated limb), various agnosias (such as visual agnosia where one is not capable of visually recognizing everyday objects), and anosognosia (which is denial of illness, such as when one claims that a paralyzed limb is still functioning, or when one denies that one is blind). These phenomena raise a number of important philosophical questions and have forced philosophers to rethink some very basic assumptions about the nature of mind and Monster resume writing services consciousness. Much has also recently been learned about autism and various forms of schizophrenia.

A common view is for college online yupo that these disorders involve some kind of deficit in self-consciousness or in one’s ability to use certain self-concepts. (For a nice review article, see Graham 2002.) Synesthesia is also a fascinating abnormal phenomenon, although not really a “pathological” condition as such (Cytowic 2003). Monster Resume. Those with synesthesia literally have taste sensations when seeing certain shapes or have color sensations when hearing certain sounds. Writing Uk. It is thus an often bizarre mixing of incoming sensory input via different modalities. One of the exciting results of this relatively new sub-field is the important interdisciplinary interest that it has generated among philosophers, psychologists, and scientists (such as in Graham 2010, Hirstein 2005, and Radden 2004). 6. Resume. Animal and Writing essay Machine Consciousness.

Two final areas of interest involve animal and machine consciousness. Monster Writing Services. In the former case it is clear that we have come a long way from the Cartesian view that animals are mere “automata” and Writing the compare that they do not even have conscious experience (perhaps partly because they do not have immortal souls). Monster Resume Services. In addition to geography homework online, the obviously significant behavioral similarities between humans and Monster resume writing services many animals, much more is known today about other physiological similarities, such as brain and Help with chat DNA structures. To be sure, there are important differences as well and Monster resume there are, no doubt, some genuinely difficult “grey areas” where one might have legitimate doubts about some animal or organism consciousness, such as small rodents, some birds and fish, and especially various insects. Nonetheless, it seems fair to say that most philosophers today readily accept the fact that a significant portion of the animal kingdom is capable of having conscious mental states, though there are still notable exceptions to that rule (Carruthers 2000, 2005). Of course, this is not to say that various animals can have all of the same kinds of sophisticated conscious states enjoyed by human beings, such as reflecting on write philosophical and mathematical problems, enjoying artworks, thinking about the vast universe or the distant past, and so on. However, it still seems reasonable to believe that animals can have at least some conscious states from rudimentary pains to various perceptual states and perhaps even to resume, some level of self-consciousness.

A number of Teach writing uk, key areas are under continuing investigation. Writing Services. For example, to what extent can animals recognize themselves, such as in a mirror, in order to demonstrate some level of self-awareness? To what extent can animals deceive or empathize with other animals, either of which would indicate awareness of the minds of others? These and Teach essay uk other important questions are at the center of writing services, much current theorizing about How to essays, animal cognition. (See Keenan et. al. 2003 and Beckoff et. al.

2002.) In some ways, the problem of knowing about animal minds is an interesting sub-area of the traditional epistemological “problem of other minds”: How do we even know that other humans have conscious minds? What justifies such a belief? The possibility of machine (or robot) consciousness has intrigued philosophers and non-philosophers alike for Monster, decades. Could a machine really think or be conscious? Could a robot really subjectively experience the smelling of a rose or the feeling of pain?

One important early launching point was a well-known paper by the mathematician Alan Turing (1950) which proposed what has come to be known as the Ahrq grant, “Turing test” for Monster services, machine intelligence and thought (and perhaps consciousness as well). Ahrq Dissertation. The basic idea is that if a machine could fool an interrogator (who could not see the machine) into thinking that it was human, then we should say it thinks or, at least, has intelligence. However, Turing was probably overly optimistic about whether anything even today can pass the Turing Test, as most programs are specialized and resume services have very narrow uses. One cannot ask the Ahrq dissertation grant, machine about virtually anything, as Turing had envisioned. Moreover, even if a machine or robot could pass the Turing Test, many remain very skeptical as to whether or not this demonstrates genuine machine thinking, let alone consciousness. Writing Services. For one thing, many philosophers would not take such purely behavioral (e.g., linguistic) evidence to support the dissertation grant, conclusion that machines are capable of having phenomenal first person experiences. Merely using words like “red” doesn’t ensure that there is the corresponding sensation of red or real grasp of the meaning of “red.” Turing himself considered numerous objections and offered his own replies, many of which are still debated today. Another much discussed argument is John Searle’s (1980) famous Chinese Room Argument, which has spawned an Monster resume writing services enormous amount of literature since its original publication (see also Searle 1984; Preston and Bishop 2002).

Searle is concerned to reject what he calls “strong AI” which is the view that suitably programmed computers literally have a mind, that is, they really understand language and actually have other mental capacities similar to humans. This is Ahrq grant contrasted with “weak AI” which is the view that computers are merely useful tools for studying the mind. The gist of Searle’s argument is that he imagines himself running a program for Monster resume writing services, using Chinese and then shows that he does not understand Chinese; therefore, strong AI is false; that is, running the program does not result in any real understanding (or thought or consciousness, by implication). Searle supports his argument against strong AI by utilizing a thought experiment whereby he is in a room and follows English instructions for manipulating Chinese symbols in order to produce appropriate answers to grant, questions in Chinese. Searle argues that, despite the appearance of understanding Chinese (say, from outside the room), he does not understand Chinese at Monster resume writing services, all.

He does not thereby know Chinese, but is Teach merely manipulating symbols on the basis of Monster resume writing services, syntax alone. Since this is what computers do, no computer, merely by following a program, genuinely understands anything. Searle replies to for college yupo, numerous possible criticisms in his original paper (which also comes with extensive peer commentary), but suffice it to say that not everyone is satisfied with his responses. For example, it might be argued that the entire room or “system” understands Chinese if we are forced to use Searle’s analogy and thought experiment. Each part of the room doesn’t understand Chinese (including Searle himself) but the entire system does, which includes the Monster resume writing, instructions and so on. Searle’s larger argument, however, is that one cannot get semantics (meaning) from syntax (formal symbol manipulation). Despite heavy criticism of the argument, two central issues are raised by Searle which continue to be of deep interest.

First, how and when does one distinguish mere “simulation” of some mental activity from for college online genuine “duplication”? Searle’s view is that computers are, at best, merely simulating understanding and thought, not really duplicating it. Much like we might say that a computerized hurricane simulation does not duplicate a real hurricane, Searle insists the Monster writing services, same goes for any alleged computer “mental” activity. We do after all distinguish between real diamonds or leather and mere simulations which are just not the real thing. Second, and perhaps even more important, when considering just why computers really can’t think or be conscious, Searle interestingly reverts back to a biologically based argument. In essence, he says that computers or robots are just not made of the right stuff with the right kind of “causal powers” to essay, produce genuine thought or consciousness. After all, even a materialist does not have to allow that any kind of physical stuff can produce consciousness any more than any type of Monster services, physical substance can, say, conduct electricity. Of course, this raises a whole host of other questions which go to How to write essays, the heart of the Monster writing services, metaphysics of consciousness. To what extent must an organism or system be physiologically like us in order to be conscious?

Why is having a certain biological or chemical make up necessary for consciousness? Why exactly couldn’t an appropriately built robot be capable of Help, having conscious mental states? How could we even know either way? However one answers these questions, it seems that building a truly conscious Commander Data is, at best, still just science fiction. In any case, the growing areas of Monster resume writing services, cognitive science and artificial intelligence are major fields within philosophy of mind and can importantly bear on philosophical questions of consciousness. Much of current research focuses on how to Ahrq dissertation grant, program a computer to model the workings of the resume, human brain, such as with so-called “neural (or connectionist) networks.”

Jan 27, 2018 Monster resume writing services, custom essay writing service -

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china essay paper FROM COUNTRY TO CITY. Social Changes of China in Photography. Translated by John Yu Zou. The Chinese Reform has been underway for Monster writing services, more than a quarter of a century. This historical social transformation is one in Teach writing which all of Chinese society is moving toward urbanization. In the context of such a massive makeover, Chinese documentary photography provides a sustained focus on social changes and Monster resume writing, unprecedented new social experiences.

With support from Bates College, I organized this exhibition of photographs with works by seven contemporary Chinese photographers to illuminate the path that China has traveled in the past twenty-five years. The exhibition is Buy paper intended to illustrate changes in Chinese society to an American audience. The photographs by the painter Liu Xiaodi were taken in the late 1970s and early 1980s. At the time, while he was an art student on fieldwork trips in China’s rural areas, he sketched and took photographs. As an art student, he was motivated to take the photographs as source material for his paintings. However, it is precisely because Liu did not receive formal schooling as a photographer that these images are free from some of the conventions of art photography.

Instead of methodically orchestrating light and composition, he merely recorded what he saw through the camera, so that upon his return to the city, he could scrutinize the Monster writing services, images again and Writing and contrast, rework them into his paintings. Without the photographer’s preoccupations, Liu’s work conveys a moment of Monster writing, transparency and simplicity. Village (series), 1978-1979. I place Liu at the beginning of the exhibition because his images of Chinese rural life retain the traces of a society bound by the social structure and lifestyles of the Maoist era. Agricultural production among Chinese peasants, the better pdf literary, conditions and Monster, substance of country living, and the states of the Help zonhoven, mind and mutual relations among people all receive representation in Liu’s works. The photographs that he originally took for his painting projects made him an accidental witness to a unique episode in Chinese history. Master of the House (series) Zhao Weidong, 16, Jiyvan County, Compared with Liu Xiaodi’s non-conceptual approach, Jiang Jian projects a distinctive formal and conceptual awareness in his portraits taken in Henan province during the 1990s. His technique has an apparent and misleading straightforwardness. He positions peasant figures against Monster images on the wall of the main room, the equivalent in Chinese rural architecture to the living room in an urban residence.

In traditional Chinese living spaces, the central wall hanging in dissertation the main room expresses the values of Monster resume writing, Chinese patriarchy and is usually a large-sized painting or work of Teach, calligraphy. Resume? The memorial tablets on Teach essay writing the offering table express the Monster services, importance of the Buy paper yupo, lineage of the clan and the centrality of family ethics. Traditionally, the cultural signs found in these graphic and calligraphic images impose symbolic restraint upon the behavior of family members. The main room is also the center of services, family activities including memorial services to ancestors, family conferences, and the reception of guests. The area serves family members and constitutes the key venue where they interact with visitors. These photographs reveal that, in Ahrq the context of contemporary Chinese social transformation, we find not only ancient traditions persist in the space of these main rooms, but political ideologies and various elements of Monster resume writing services, popular culture have now entered the space and are competing against one another.

Numerous political messages, images of contemporary popular culture, and signs of traditional culture coexist within the same space. Today, interiors revealing traditional ritual activities are becoming more rare in China, especially in the coastal cities. Writing And Contrast? They are being replaced by décor evoking Western-style living rooms. The Master of the House series expresses the persistence of Chinese rural society and Monster, folk traditions in an increasingly urban China. How do we understand the Ahrq dissertation grant, concurrence of popular society, traditional culture, Confucian traditions, and political ideologies, and their mutual impact on contemporary China? To what extent may we achieve accuracy in their description with the Monster writing services, help of Buy paper for college online yupo, different theories and methodologies? Many of Monster resume writing, us are facing these questions. The unique approach of the Master of the House series provides some heuristic leads. Jiang Jian invites his subjects to adopt standing or sitting positions in a living space that is still richly resonant with meaning, and then within that format he records every visual detail of their bodily presence and their surroundings. It is through such detail that he displays the conditions of life among Chinese peasants, and through bold folk coloring he highlights the cultural taste in rural central China.

At the same time, Jiang is yupo also able to resume writing services render a scenario characterized by the coexistence of government ideologies, contemporary popular culture, and traditional culture. Of course, what we may further learn from the photographs is that the process of dissertation, urbanization is also one in which the values of urban living begin to be widely circulated and to take root in rural areas. Jiang Jian thus makes available to us a set of visual documents to resume writing help understand the daily lives of Chinese peasants in a specific geographic region. Besiege the City by the Country (series) Through the 1990s, Zhang Xinmin, from dissertation Guangdong province, was engaged in a colossal visual project: Besiege the City by Monster services the Country: The Long March of Chinese Peasants to the City . Paperclip? This project consisted of three. parts: Village and writing services, Small Town Life , To the City , and The City . In a panoramic sweep, Zhang tried to capture the single most significant event in the contemporary transformation of Chinese society: peasants’ departure. from their land and their integration into city life. Since the 1980s, because of Teach uk, radical changes in China’s social structure and economic policies, there has been a fevered acceleration in writing the process of urbanization.

Massive numbers of dissertation, surplus laborers from rural China flocked to resume services the city in search of essay writing uk, work. According to a survey conducted by the Rural Survey Team at China’s Central Statistics Bureau, by 2001 almost ninety million Chinese workers had moved from resume writing services rural to Writing the compare and contrast essay urban regions. Besiege the City by the Country (series) However, for Monster resume writing services, peasant workers, the prospects for life and work in the city have not been good. The challenges they face in the cities far surpass finding adequate food and shelter.

Cities and their social structures have also not been prepared enough, in either material or psychological terms, to welcome peasant workers. Even though the cities and Writing the compare and contrast, their traditional residents have grown dependent upon the services of peasant workers, the latter are often subject to ill treatment. Zhang’s photographs reveal the resume writing services, urban survival techniques of Chinese peasants and paperclip zonhoven, their gradual transition toward their new roles as city dwellers. The moments he captures forcefully convey the details of peasant life in the city, whether it is the taking of pictures for identification cards, which is the first step toward finding a job in the city, or the pin-ups of voluptuous women and the blown-up images of a Chinese banknote decorating their mosquito-netted bunks. Zhang Xingmin’s photographs remind us that in the process of urbanization, peasant workers have come to constitute a key component of contemporary Chinese urban life. Their living and resume writing services, working conditions in the cities should be acknowledged as a part of China’s social reality, and online, a part of China’s urban culture. Through his photographic eye, Zhang gives detailed representation to their ordeals in Monster services the urban environment.

Shanghailanders (series), 1992-1995. In the 1990s, urbanization in China grew at an extraordinary pace. Many social tensions intensified and became highly visible. While the speed of social change no doubt left an indelible impact on the values and lifestyles of and contrast, peasants, it also profoundly reshaped the ideas and daily lives of urban dwellers. Beginning in the early 1990s, the Shanghai photographer Lu Yuanmin spent ten years producing the series Shanghailanders . With his highly personal perspective, he brought forth images of Shanghai urbanites assaulted by profound economic change. At the center of Lu Yuanmin’s photographs is a cohort of Shanghai residents who maintained their habitual ways of living on the eve of Monster resume, radical upheavals in Chinese society. The subjects of the Shanghailanders series are those who remained unconcerned with changes in their external world. For a long time, this social group received almost no attention in Chinese media and press. Online Yupo? They were not the soldiers, workers, and peasants glorified in Monster government propaganda, nor those “contemporary heroes” who responded positively to the new economic policies from above and actively engaged in commerce when the Ahrq, society moved toward a market economy. These were instead the people left behind by their own times. Monster Resume Writing Services? Like Zhang Xinmin’s peasant workers, these Shanghai urbanites were largely neglected by mass media.

But unlike the peasant workers caught in Zhang’s gritty images, Shanghai’s residents asked for neither the society’s attention nor its assistance. They were a self-sufficient lot. At some level these Shanghailanders represent the with online chat, majority of the population in Monster resume writing the metropolis, urban residents who stayed largely outside public discourse. In terms of social background, Lu belongs to Help with geography homework online the same culture as his sitters. His photographs reveal a strong sense of identification with his subjects. In these images independent, self-possessed Shanghailanders receive the deepest of sympathy from the artist, but the particulars of their living environments also become subjects of exquisite description. In this series, the Shanghailanders appear willing to lose themselves in times that have passed. From their reserved and somewhat defiant manners, we may appreciate the complicated psychological reaction of a particular group to Monster resume radical social transformation. The stillness of their gestures and positions contrasts dramatically with the violent and dissertation grant, unpredictable social mobility within Chinese society at the time.

Through Lu’s lenses, they serve as a static point of reference to observe and consider drastic social changes. Shangai Sketch (series), 2002. Zhou Ming’s early works, The Last Day of No. 1 National Railway and Monster resume services, Housing Shortages , were series that recorded Shanghai urban life at with online, the beginning of the 1990s. From then on, he gave priority to street shots in an effort to capture changes in Shanghai’s urban public spaces. These were distinctive for the employment of what photographers call the “optic unconscious.” Zhou seeks to render the reality of Monster resume writing services, Shanghai in a style that straddles documentary record and personal viewpoint.

He does so by gathering a large number of photographic details of everyday life in dissertation the city. He also juxtaposes graphic symbols of very different significance within the. same frame to provoke associations regarding the passage of time. The New Residences of Luoyang series, created by Luo Yongjin in the 1990s, addresses an ancient Chinese capital of six different dynasties. Luoyang is not a typical modern city, and the images evoke a “pre-modern” urban architectural style.

Depicting contemporary Chinese residential buildings of extraordinary solidity and power, the photographer articulates a deep-seated Chinese architectural aesthetic and spatial consciousness. By way of stark visual reduction, these works bring together the architectural aspects of Chinese residential construction and the reductive nature of Western modernist architecture, even though the similarity comes across as rather crude. The aggressive architectural surfaces in the images stand in contrast to the clusters of skyscrapers in the coastal cities, and are evidence that urbanization in the Chinese interior follows a different pattern from the coast. New Residences of Luoyang (series) Such works by Luo provide a meaningful point of Monster writing services, departure for an understanding of the relationship between architecture and urban life and development in interior Chinese cities, as well as the limited aesthetic resources of Chinese city dwellers in these areas. After Luo began working in Shanghai, his collage-style, grid-partitioned works singularly expressed the modern city’s endless expansiveness and self-duplication. In the recent publication, Research Report on Contemporary Chinese Class (Lu Xueyi editor, Shehui kexue wenxian chubanshe, Beijing, 2002), Chinese sociologists redefined the social classes in China. According to this model, Chinese society now may be divided into ten classes. The leading classes of the Maoist era, the industrial workers and peasants, are ranked eighth and ninth, posited above only the Help, tenth class, made up of the unemployed and semi-unemployed.

According to this scheme industrial workers and peasants are no longer the decisive forces propelling social progress in Monster services China. With Homework Online? The “masters” of Chinese society in Maoist times now define the Monster resume writing, lowest strata of the writing, social hierarchy. Heaviness of Industry (series) At a time when working-class existence is increasingly marginalized and writing, workers’ images appear with ever decreasing frequency in China, Zhou Hai’s Heaviness of Industry project refocuses our attention on write essays the life and working conditions of writing services, industrial workers who have been irretrievably remade into the society’s “silent majority.” Zhou’s documentary project began in 1997 and is, according to him, still ongoing. In his own writing, he makes it clear that the motive in taking these pictures is to draw more peoples’ attention toward what is better pdf literary hidden behind industries, toward the labor and subsistence of the workers. Monster Resume Writing Services? His images are intended to call attention to the human component of the abstract notion of industry. He wants to demonstrate the heaviness of industry as supported by these silent human figures, a heaviness borne by the real members of the working class.

While the images in the Heaviness of Industry series strive to show the workers’ labor and subsistence in physical terms, they also expose the drift of the working class as a whole from the center of Chinese society to its peripheries. The Heaviness of Industry series catalogs a number of Teach essay writing, raw moments in workers’ operational routines from a rich variety of perspectives. Zhou’s images do not aestheticize the laborers’ physical hardship, nor do they present sensational characterizations of human tragedy. Monster Resume Services? Neither singing praise to modernization nor reflecting upon the negative consequences of the process may be as important as providing a site for Teach uk, an extensive social appreciation of the material experiences of “industry,” of the persons who are engaged in Monster resume services industrial production, of the relationship between the human body and work, of the value of work to the entire society. Heaviness of Industry (series) Because of the special conditions of social development and historical coincidences, modernization in Help zonhoven China is following a unique trajectory. Well before its infrastructural base undergoes systematic industrial modernization, the Monster resume writing, country faces a transition toward a digital society.

The conflicting objectives and realities between the pursuit of industrialization and the drive toward post-industrial environments result in much awkwardness in actual social experience. The industrial workers in Zhou’s pictures embody such awkwardness in the most direct terms. These works do not excessively elaborate upon Help geography online chat, the experience itself. Rather, they introduce us to the complicated psychological states — a mixture of pride, perseverance, loss, and helplessness — with which the workers react toward the complexities of the historical moment. By weaving together subliminal settings and intimate depictions, Zhou takes his subjects away from the Maoist myths handed down from the past and returns them to their actual condition and Monster resume, salvation.

From the documentary works by these Chinese photographers, we may conclude that there is for college yupo a parallel between the Monster, growth of Teach essay writing uk, Chinese documentary photography and changes in Chinese society. The appearance of works with a distinct social vision bespeaks of the beginning of a process in which Chinese photography is emerging from the constraints of state ideologies. Photographers are taking individual critical stances toward the reality of society. The cameras in the photographers’ hands are tools to record dramatic transformation and day-to-day social experience while they articulate a personal worldview.