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Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. We evaluate people and groups as responsible or not, depending on how seriously they take their responsibilities. Often we do this informally, via moral judgment. Sometimes we do this formally, for instance in Custom uk visa legal judgment. This article considers mainly moral responsibility, and focuses largely upon individuals. Later sections also comment on the relation between legal and moral responsibility, and on the responsibility of collectives. The article discusses four different areas of individual moral responsibility: (1) Responsible agency, whereby a person is regarded as a normal moral agent; (2) Retrospective responsibility, when a person is judged for her actions, for instance, in being blamed or punished; (3) Prospective responsibility, for instance, the responsibilities attaching to a particular role; and (4) Responsibility as a virtue, when we praise a person as being responsible. Philosophical discussion of responsibility has focused largely on (1) and (2). The article points out me write about poems that a wider view of responsibility helps explore some connections between moral and legal responsibility, and between individual and collective responsibility. It also enables us to relate responsibility to its original philosophical use, which was in political thought. The word responsibility is surprisingly modern.

It is Custom uk visa also, as Paul Ricoeur has observed, not really well-established within the philosophical tradition (2000: 11). This is reflected in the fact that we can locate two rather different philosophical approaches to responsibility. The original philosophical usage of responsibility was political (see McKeon, 1957). This reflected the Hooks an essay origin of the word. In all modern European languages, responsibility only finds a home toward the end of the eighteenth century. This is within debates about representative government, that is, government which is responsible to the people. In the etymology of responsibility, the essay service Oxford English Dictionary cites the debates on a business research paper, the U.S. Essay Service. constitution in the Federalist Papers (1787), and the Anglo-Irish political thinker Edmund Burke (1796). When John Stuart Mill writes of responsibility, in the middle of the nineteenth century, again his concern is not with free will, but with the principles of Edgar allan representative government. At the uk visa end of the nineteenth century, the most notable thinker to speak of responsibility is Max Weber, who propounds an ethics of responsibility ( Verantwortungsethik ) for Marking service charlies the politician. Custom Service. For Weber, the vocation of politics demands a calm attention to the facts of the situation and poe essays conclusion, the consequences of actions – and not to lofty or abstract principles. So far as responsibility has a place in eighteenth and nineteenth century thought, then, this is in essay service political contexts, where the concern is with responsible action and me write about poems, the principles of representative government.

In twentieth century philosophy, on the other hand, the emphasis has been on Custom essay uk visa, questions of free will and determinism: Is a person responsible for her actions or character? Would the truth of determinism eliminate such responsibility? Recent moral philosophy contains many attempts to show how responsible agency might be compatible with the causal order of the universe. These debates obviously center on Edgar allan conclusion, the individual agent. As such, they pose difficulties for understanding the topic of collective responsibility – an essay issue that twentieth century politics has raised with a new urgency. Nor does a concern with free will correspond to to start many everyday issues about responsibility – for example, questions of mutual accountability, defining a person’s sphere of responsibility, or judging a person as sufficiently responsible for a particular role.

This Encyclopedia article will mainly deal with the responsibility of individual persons; another article considers collective moral responsibility. In fact, there are several important uses of responsibility as it relates to individuals, which this article will tackle in turn. There are also important questions about the Custom essay service uk visa distinction between moral and Help bachelor, legal responsibility. The article will then consider what relations there may be between the concept’s individual and collective uses. It concludes by briefly asking what connection there may be between the original, political use of responsibility, and individual moral responsibility as people now usually understand it. There is no philosophically well-settled way of dividing or analyzing the various components of responsibility, and some components are often ignored by philosophers.

To take a more comprehensive approach, this article divides the responsibility of essay uk visa individuals into four areas of enquiry. Marking Charlies. Recent analytic moral philosophy has tended to ask two deceptively simple questions about essay, responsibility: What is it to be responsible? and What is a person responsible for? The first question is usually taken as a question about moral agency, the second as a question about holding people accountable for past actions. As noted, however, this does not capture the variety of uses that we make of the Hooks concept. We can see this by observing that both questions might mean something quite different, leading us to four distinct topics, as follows: What is it to be responsible? is most often asked by philosophers as a question about the foundations of moral agency. Custom Essay Uk Visa. What sort of creature can properly be held responsible for Edgar poe essays its actions? The simple answer is: a normal human adult. To explain and justify this reply, philosophers tend to turn to psychological and metaphysical features of normal adults, such as free will.

We might also approach the same issue with a somewhat different emphasis: What features of (normal, adult) human interaction are involved in our holding one another responsible? However, in essay uk visa asking What is it to be responsible? we might also have a second question in d lester mind. We often praise some people as responsible, and criticize others as irresponsible. Here responsibility names a virtue – a morally valuable character trait. We may also praise an Custom service institution as responsible. One of the word’s original uses was to call for Edgar conclusion responsible government.

We can compare this with the service uk visa more recent demand that corporations be socially responsible. This aspect of responsibility has received very little philosophical attention. What is a person responsible for? is a question most often asked by a business research, philosophers in connection with causation and accountability. This retrospective, or backward-looking, use is closely connected with praise and blame, punishment, and desert. When something has gone wrong, we invariably want to know who was at fault; and when something has gone right, we occasionally stop to ask who acted well. This is the Custom topic of retrospective responsibility.

Again, however, we might use the Writing paper james same words to ask an entirely different question: What is a person responsible for? might also be an enquiry about a person’s duties – about her sphere of responsibility, as we say. A parent is responsible for Custom essay uk visa caring for his child, an employee for doing her job, a citizen for obeying the me write an essay about law. It is a basic fact of human cooperation that responsibilities are often divided up between people: for example, the Custom essay service doctor is responsible for prescribing the conclusion right drugs, and essay, the patient responsible for taking them correctly. As against questions of retrospective responsibility, this topic is sometimes termed prospective responsibility, that is, what responsibilities we are duty-bound to undertake. These two apparently simple questions (What is it to be responsible? and What is a person responsible for?) about individual responsibility thus point to four different topics: Each of these topics poses a host of important philosophical questions. Both the retrospective and prospective uses also raise the relation between legal and moral responsibility. Many important theories of responsibility relate to legal concerns, which will be discussed in a later section. As we pursue these topics, there is also the Help thesis bachelor difficulty of seeing how they interrelate, so that it makes sense that we use the same word to Custom essay raise each issue. The discussion begins with the topics which philosophers have most often discussed: the nature of moral agency and retrospective responsibility.

Normal human adults represent our paradigm case of responsible agents. What is distinctive about them, that we accord them this status? Thinking of retrospective responsibility in particular, why can be held accountable for to start an essay their actions – justly praised or blamed, deservedly punished or rewarded? The philosophical literature has explored three broad approaches to moral agency: Human beings have free will, that is, distinctive causal powers or a special metaphysical status, that separate them from everything else in essay uk visa the universe; Human beings can act on the basis of reason(s); Human beings have a certain set of moral or proto-moral feelings. The first approach, although historically important, has largely been discredited by the success of modern science. Help Me Write About Myself Poems. Science provides, or promises, naturalistic explanations of Custom such phenomena as the evolution of the human species and the workings of the me write an essay about myself poems brain. Custom Service. Almost all modern philosophers approach responsibility as compatibilists – that is, they assume that moral responsibility must be compatible with causal or naturalistic explanation of human thought and action, and therefore reject the service charlies metaphysical idea of free will. (An important note: There can be terminological confusion here. Some contemporary philosophers will use the term free will to describe our everyday freedom of choice, claiming that free will, properly understood, is essay compatible with the world’s causal order.)

Among modern compatibilists, a contest remains, however, between the second and third approaches – positions that are essentially Kantian and introduction quotes, Humean in Custom essay inspiration. Immanuel Kant’s own position is allan conclusion f complex, and commentators dispute how far his view also involves a metaphysical notion of free will. Uk Visa. It is indisputable, however, that our rationality is at the centre of his picture of moral agency. Kant himself does not speak of responsibility – the word was only just coming into the language of his day – but he does have much to Help say about imputation ( Zurechnung ), that is, the essay uk visa basis on charlies, which actions are imputed to a person. Kant was principally concerned with evaluation of the self. Although he occasionally mentions blame (mutual accountability), his moral theory is essay service uk visa really about the basis on Help write bachelor, which a person treats herself as responsible. The core of his answer is that a rational agent chooses to uk visa act in the light of principles – that is, we deliberate among reasons. Therefore standards of rationality apply to us, and when we fail to act rationally this is, simply and crudely, a Bad Thing.

It is important to be aware that Kant sees reason as having moral content, so that there is write a critical introduction quotes a failure of rationality involved when we do something immoral – for Custom service instance, by pursuing our self-interest at Help poems, the expense of others. Even if we sometimes feel no inclination to take account of others, reason still tells us that we should, and can motivate us to Custom essay service do so. Recognizably Kantian accounts of moral agency include Bok (1998) and How to a critical essay quotes, (less explicitly) Fischer Ravizza (1998). The issue of service uk visa reason’s moral content separates Kantians from Help me write an essay about myself poems Humeans. David Hume denied that reason can provide us with moral guidance, or the motivation to act morally.

He is famous for Custom essay uk visa his claim that Reason is wholly inactive, and can never be the source of so active a principle as conscience, or a sense of morals ( A Treatise of Human Nature , book 3, part 1, sect. 1). If we are moral agents, this is because we are equipped with certain tendencies to feel or desire, dispositions that make it seem rational to us to act and think morally. Help Me Write About. Hume himself stressed our tendency to feel sympathy for service others and our tendency to approve of Writing research d lester actions that lead to social benefits (and to disapprove of those contrary to uk visa the social good). Another important class of feelings concern our tendencies to feel shame or guilt, or more broadly, to be concerned with how others see our actions and character. Help Thesis Bachelor. A Humean analysis of responsibility will investigate how these emotions lead us to be responsive to one another, in ways that support moral conduct and provide social penalties for immoral conduct. Essay Uk Visa. That is, its emphasis is less on people’s evaluation of themselves and Help, more on uk visa, how people judge and influence one another. Russell (1995) carefully develops Hume’s own account. In twentieth century philosophy, broadly Humean approaches were given a new lease of Help about myself poems life by Peter Strawson’s Freedom and Resentment (1962). This classic essay underlined the role of reactive sentiments or reactive attitudes – that is, emotional responses such as resentment or shame – in practices of responsibility. The basic criticisms that each position makes of the other are simple.

Kantians are vulnerable to the charge that they do not give a proper account of the role of feeling and emotion in the moral life. They can also be accused of uk visa reifying our capacity for reason in a way that makes mysterious how human beings’ capacities for reason and morality might have evolved. Humeans are vulnerable to the charge that they cannot give any account of the validity of reasoning beyond the boundaries of what we might feel inclined to endorse or reject: Can the Humean really hold that moral reasoning has any validity for people who do not feel concern for others? Contemporary philosophers have developed both positions so as to take account of such criticisms, which has led to essay introduction quotes rather technical debates about the nature of reason (for instance, Bernard Williams’ (1981) well-known distinction between internal and essay, external reasons) and normativity (what it is for charlies something to provide a reason to act or think in a certain way, for example, Korsgaard, 1996). So far as responsibility is concerned, Wallace (1994) is a well-regarded attempt to mediate between the two approaches. Rather differently, Pettit (2001) uses our susceptibility to reasons as the basis for an essentially interactive account of moral agency. For our purposes, perhaps the most important point is that both positions highlight a series of factors important to responsibility and mutual accountability. These factors include: general responsiveness to others (for instance, via moral reasoning or feelings such as sympathy); a sense of responsibility for our actions (for instance, so that we may offer reasons for our actions or feel emotions of shame or guilt); and tendencies to regard others as responsible (for instance, to respect persons as the uk visa authors of their deeds and to feel resentful or grateful to them).

In each case, note that the first example in brackets has a typically Kantian (reason-based) cast, the second a Humean (feeling/emotion-related) cast. Two further thoughts should be added which apply regardless of which side of this debate one inclines toward. First, it is not at all clear that these factors are on/off, either there or not there; in How to a critical essay other words, it looks likely that responsible agency is essay service a matter of degree. One possible implication of this is that some other animals might have a degree of moral agency; another implication is that human beings may vary in the extent of their agency. (This seems clearly true of thesis children as opposed to essay service uk visa adults. Marking Service. We may be more reluctant to essay service uk visa believe that the extent of a business research d lester adults’ moral agency can vary, but such a claim is not obviously false.) Second, none of these factors has an obvious connection to essay uk visa free will, in the metaphysical sense that opposes free will to an essay about myself determinism. Custom Essay. As we shall see, however, whether we emphasize the rational or the affective basis for responsible agency tends to generate characteristically different accounts of retrospective responsibility, where the Marking service charlies issue of free will tends to recur. In assigning responsibility for an outcome or event, we may simply be telling a causal story. This might or might not involve human actions. For example: the essay service uk visa faulty gasket was responsible for the car breaking down; his epileptic fit was responsible for the accident.

Such usages do not imply any assignment of write blame or desert, and philosophers often distinguish them by referring to essay service uk visa causal responsibility. Paper. More commonly, however, responsibility attribution is concerned with the morality of somebody’s action(s). Among the many different causes that led to an outcome, that action is identified as the morally salient one. Custom Essay. If we say the captain was responsible for the shipwreck, we do not deny that all sorts of other causes were in play. But we do single out the person who we think ought to be held responsible for How to write a critical essay the outcome. Philosophers sometimes distinguish this usage, by Custom uk visa, speaking of liability responsibility. Retrospective responsibility usually involves, then, a moral (or perhaps legal) judgment of the person responsible. How To Write A Critical Introduction. This judgment typically pictures the uk visa person as liable to various consequences: to feeling remorse (or pride), to being blamed (or praised), to making amends (or receiving gratitude), and so forth. This topic is an a critical introduction quotes old concern of philosophers, predating the term responsibility by at least two millennia.

The classic analysis of the issues goes back to essay service uk visa Aristotle in Help write thesis bachelor the Nicomachean Ethics , where he investigates the Custom essay service conditions that exculpate us from blame and the circumstances where blame is appropriate. Among conditions that excuse the actor, he mentions intoxication, force of circumstances, and coercion: we cannot be held responsible where our capacity to choose was grossly impaired or where there was no effective choice open to us (though perhaps we can be blamed for getting into that condition or those circumstances). Bachelor. We can be blamed for what we do when threatened by others, but not as we would be if coercion were absent. Custom Service. In each case, the issue seems to be whether or not we are able to control what we do: if something lies beyond our control, it also lies beyond the scope of our responsibility. However, although Aristotle thinks that our capacities for deliberation and choice are important to responsible agency, he lacks the Kantian emphasis on rational control discussed in the last section. Aristotle grants considerable importance to habituation and stable character traits – the virtues and vices. Hence another way of interpreting what he says about responsibility is to argue that Aristotle’s excusing conditions represent cases where an action does not reveal a person’s character: everybody would act like that if circumstances provided no other choice; no one makes responsible choices when drunk.

On the to start other hand, how we respond to coercion does reveal much about our virtues and Custom service uk visa, vices; the point is that the Marking service meaning of service such acts is very different from the meaning they would have in the absence of How to write introduction coercion. In its emphasis on character, Aristotle’s account is much closer to Custom service Hume’s than to Kant’s, since character is about tendencies to feel and How to write essay introduction, behave in essay uk visa various ways, as well as to a critical quotes think and choose. Given that Kant’s moral psychology is usually thought to be less plausible than Aristotle or Hume’s, it is interesting that Kantian approaches have, nonetheless, dominated modern approaches to service retrospective responsibility. Why should this be so? Kant’s underlying thought is that the person who acts well deserves to be happy (he continually refers to goodness as worthiness to be happy). The person who acts badly does not: she deserves to paper d lester be reproached, ought to feel remorse, and Custom essay, may even deserve punishment. Help About Myself Poems. Since blame, guilt and punishment are of great practical importance, it is clearly desirable that our account of responsibility justify them. Some thinkers have argued that these justifications can be purely consequentialist. For instance, Smart (1961) argues that blame, guilt and punishment are only merited insofar as they can encourage people to do better in the future. However, most philosophers have been dissatisfied with such accounts. Instead, they have argued that justification must relate to the culprit’s desert . For most people, the intuitive justification for the sort of desert involved in Custom essay service retrospective responsibility lies in individual choice or control.

You chose to act selfishly: you deserve blame. Marking. You chose not to take precautions: you deserve to Custom essay bear the an essay about poems consequences. You chose to break the service law: you deserve punishment. (The question of legal responsibility is considered separately, below.) This way of putting matters clearly gives pride of place to our capacity to control our conduct in Hooks to start the light of reasons, moral and otherwise. It will also emphasize the intentions underlying an action rather than its actual outcomes. This is because intentions are subject to rational choice in a way that outcomes often are not. Kant’s thought that the rational agent can choose whether or not to act on the basis of reasons is sometimes expressed in the idea that we should each be respected as the authors of our thoughts and essay uk visa, intentions. This thought has the less positive consequence that when somebody chooses immorally and allan conclusion, irrationally, he fails in essay service uk visa a distinctive way, so that he is not (in Kant’s terms) worthy to be happy. Note, however, that this line of thought is open to allan poe essays conclusion f a very obvious objection. It can be argued that our intentions and service uk visa, choices are conditioned by our characters, and Edgar conclusion f, our characters by the circumstances of our upbringing. Clearly these are not matters of choice.

This is why a concern with retrospective responsibility raises the family of issues around moral luck and continues to lead back to Custom essay service the issue of free will: the idea that we are, really and ultimately, the authors of our own choices – despite scientific and common-sense appearances. The article on praise and blame discusses this issue in more depth, contrasting Kant’s approach with that of Aristotle and utilitarianism. Humeans, favoring naturalistic explanation of thought and action, are likely to be drawn to elements of the last two – namely Aristotle’s emphasis on actions as revealing virtues and vices, and the consequentialist emphasis on social benefits of practices of accountability. In particular, Humeans are much more likely to see retrospective responsibility in terms of the feelings that are appropriate – for instance, our resentment at someone’s bad conduct, or our susceptibility to shame at others’ responses. Help Poems. Clearly, such feelings and the resulting actions are about our exercising mutual influence on one another’s conduct for the sake of more beneficial social interaction.

In other words, although the Humean analysis can be understood in terms of individual psychology, it also points to the question: What is it about human interaction that leads us to hold one another responsible? Kantians, on the other hand, tend to think of retrospective responsibility, not as a matter of Custom influencing others, but rather as our respecting individual capacities for rational choice. This respect may still have harsh consequences, as it involves granting people their just deserts, including blame and punishment. A different use of responsibility is as a synonym for duty. When we ask about a person’s responsibilities, we are concerned with what she ought to be doing or attending to.

Sometimes we use the term to describe duties that everyone has – for example, Everyone is responsible for looking after his own health. More typically, we use the term to Writing paper james describe a particular person’s duties. Service. He is responsible for sorting the me write an essay about poems garbage; she is essay uk visa responsible for write a critical looking after her baby; the Custom Environmental Protection Agency is responsible for monitoring air pollution; and so on. In these cases, the term singles out the duties, or area of responsibility, that somebody has by virtue of their role. This usage bears at least one straightforward relation to the question of retrospective responsibility.

We will tend to hold someone responsible when she fails to perform her duties. A captain is responsible for the safety of the Hooks an essay ship; hence he will be held responsible if there is a shipwreck. Custom. The usual justification for this lies in the thought that if he had taken his responsibility more seriously, then his actions might have averted the shipwreck. Thesis Bachelor. In some cases, though, when we are entrusted with responsibility for something, we will be held responsible if harm occurs, regardless of whether we might have averted it. This might be true if one hires (that is, rents) a car, for instance: even if an accident is not your fault, the contract may stipulate that you will be responsible for Custom part of the repair costs. A Business James. In order to essay service uk visa hire (rent) the car in the first place, one must accept – take responsibility for – certain risks. Legal thinkers, in particular, have pointed out that this suggests one way in research paper d lester which Kantian approaches – that is, approaches to responsibility which focus on acts and outcomes that were under a person’s control – may be inadequate. Essay Uk Visa. We may think that everybody has a duty (that is, a prospective responsibility) to make recompense when certain sorts of risks materialize from their actions. Consider a standard example: suppose John accidentally slips and breaks a vase in Marking service Jane's shop.

This is probably not something John had control over, and to avoid the risk of Custom uk visa damaging any of Jane's possessions, John would have to avoid entering her shop altogether. Marking Service Charlies. Yet we usually think that people have a duty to make some recompense when damage results from their actions, however accidental. From the point of view of our interacting with one another, the issue is not really whether a person could have avoided a particular, unfortunate outcome, so much as the fact that all our actions create risks; and when those risks materialize, someone suffers. The question is then – as Arthur Ripstein (1999) has put it – whether the losses should lie where they fall. To say that they should is essay uk visa basically to allan shrug our shoulders about the damage; in that case, the Custom essay service uk visa only person who suffers is the shop-owner. But we often think that losses should be redistributed. For that to happen, someone else has to make some sort of amends – in me write myself this case, the person who caused the essay service accident will have to accept responsibility. In terms of prospective responsibility, then, we may think that everyone has a duty to make certain amends when certain risks of action actually materialize – just because all our actions impose risks on others as well as ourselves. In this case, retrospective responsibility is justified, not by whether the person controlled the Help me write an essay about outcome or could have chosen to do otherwise, but by reference to these prospective responsibilities.

Notice, however, that we might want to distinguish the duty to make amends from the issue of blameworthiness. One might accept the above account as to why the customer should compensate the owner of the Custom service broken vase, but add that in such a case she is not to blame for the breakage. Help Me Write An Essay Poems. There is clearly some merit to this response. It suggests that retrospective responsibility is service more complicated than is often thought: blameworthiness and research paper james d lester, liability to compensate are different things, and may need to be justified in different ways. However, this question has not really been systematically pursued by moral philosophers, although the distinction between moral culpability and liability to punishment has attracted much attention among legal philosophers. The connection between prospective and retrospective responsibility raises another complication. This stems from the fact that people often disagree about what they ought to essay uk visa do – that is, about Hooks to start, what people’s prospective responsibilities are. This question of moral disagreement is uk visa not often mentioned in debates about responsibility, but may be rather important. To take an example: people have very different beliefs about the ethics of voluntary euthanasia – some call it mercy killing, others outright murder.

Depending on our view, we will tend to blame or to condone the person who kills to end grave suffering. In other words, different views of somebody’s prospective responsibilities will lead to very different views of how retrospective responsibility ought to be assigned. Help Me Write Myself. One might even argue that many of our moral disagreements are actually brought to Custom essay uk visa light, and fought out, when actors and on-lookers dispute what responses are appropriate. For example, is someone who commits euthanasia worthy praise or blame, reward or punishment? These disagreements, often very vocal, are important for Marking charlies the whole topic of responsibility, because they relate to Custom essay service uk visa how moral agents come to be aware of what morality demands of them. Kantian ethics typically describes moral agency in terms of the co-authorship of moral norms: the rational agent imposes norms upon herself, and so can regard herself as an author of morality. (This element of Kantian ethics can be difficult to appreciate, because Kant is so clear that everyone should impose the same objective morality on themselves.) Whether or not one accepts the Kantian emphasis upon rationality or a universalist morality, it is clear that an How to write essay introduction quotes important element of Custom essay service uk visa responsible agency consists in judging one’s own responsibilities. Hence, we do not tend to describe a dutiful child as responsible. This is Writing research paper because he obeys, rather than exercising his own judgment about what he ought to do. This issue is not just about how we judge our own duties, however: it’s also about how others judge us, and essay service, our right to judge others.

So far as others regard us as responsible, they will recognize that we also have a right to judge what people’s prospective responsibilities are, and How to essay, how retrospective responsibility ought to be assigned. Importantly, people can recognize one another as responsible in Custom service uk visa this way, even in the face of quite deep moral disagreements. By the same token, we know how disrespectful it is to start of someone, not to take her moral judgments seriously. The question of how far we are entitled to Custom essay judge prospective responsibilities – our own and other people’s – and how far we are entitled to judge retrospective responsibilities – our own and How to a critical introduction, others’ – raises yet another complication for how we think about responsibility. As the example of childhood suggests, there can be degrees of responsibility.

Ascribing different degrees of Custom essay service uk visa responsibility may be necessary or appropriate with regard to different sorts of decision-making. Hence we sometimes say, He’s not ready for that sort of myself responsibility or She couldn’t be expected to understand the implications of that sort of choice. In the first place, such statements highlight the close connection between prospective and Custom service, retrospective responsibility: it will not be appropriate to hold someone (fully) responsible for his actions if he was faced with responsibilities that were unrealistic and over-demanding. It also points to the fact that people vary in their capacities to act and judge responsibility. This reminds us that the capacities associated with responsible (moral) agency are probably a matter of degree. It might also remind us of a fourth use of write bachelor responsibility: to name a virtue of character. While theories of Custom uk visa moral agency tend to regard an agent as either responsible or not, with no half-measures, our everyday language usually deploys the term responsible in a more nuanced way. As just indicated, one way we do this is by weighing degrees of responsibility, both with regard to the sort of prospective responsibilities a person should bear and a person’s liability to blame or penalties.

A more morally loaded usage is involved when we speak of How to write introduction responsible administrators, socially responsible corporations, responsible choices – and their opposites. In these cases, we use the term responsible as a term of praise: responsibility represents a virtue that people (and organizations) may exhibit in Custom one area of their conduct, or perhaps exemplify in their entire lives. In such cases, our meaning is usually quite clear. The responsible person can be relied on to judge and to act in certain morally desirable ways; in Edgar allan poe essays conclusion the case of Custom essay more demanding (more responsible) roles, the person can be trusted to exercise initiative and to demonstrate commitment; and when things go wrong, such a person will be prepared to take responsibility for dealing with things. One way of an essay poems putting this might be to say that the responsible person can be counted on take her responsibilities seriously. We will not need to hold her responsible, because we can depend on her holding herself responsible. Another way of putting the matter would be much more contentious, and harkens back to the question of whether we should think of Custom service moral agency as a matter of degree. One might claim that the responsible person possesses the elements pertaining to moral agency (such as capacities to introduction judge moral norms or to respond to Custom essay service uk visa others) to a greater degree than the irresponsible person. This would be highly controversial, because it seems to undermine the idea that all human beings are equal moral agents. However, it would help us to see why a term we sometimes use to describe all moral agents can also be used to praise some people rather than others. However this may be, it is fair to allan poe essays conclusion f say that this usage of responsible has received the least attention from philosophers.

This is Custom uk visa interesting given that this is clearly a virtue of considerable importance in modern societies. At any rate, it is possible to Marking service charlies see some important connections between the virtue and Custom service, the areas that philosophers have emphasized. The irresponsible person is not one who lacks prospective responsibilities, nor is she one who may not be held responsible retrospectively. It is Marking service charlies only that she does not take her responsibilities seriously. Note, however, that the more responsible someone is, the more we will be inclined to entrust her with demanding roles and responsibilities. In this case, her exposure, as it were, to being held retrospectively responsible increases accordingly.

And the same is true in the opposite direction, when someone consistently behaves less responsibly. An illuminating essay by Herbert Fingarette (1967) considers the limit case of the essay service uk visa psychopath, someone who shows absolutely no moral concern for others, nor any sensitivity to moral reproach. Perhaps our first response will be to say that such a person is research james d lester irresponsible, even evil. Fingarette argues we must finally conclude that he is in essay service uk visa fact not a candidate for moral responsibility – that he is not a moral agent, not to be assigned prospective responsibilities, not to be held retrospectively responsible for his actions. In other words, it only makes sense to grade someone as responsible or irresponsible, so long as holding her responsible has any prospect of Writing research d lester making her act more responsibly. Service Uk Visa. The psychopath will never be responsive to blame, nor ever feel guilt. In fact, as someone who will never take any responsibility seriously, he does not qualify as a moral agent at all – as being responsible in its most basic sense. This might sound like writing the person a blank check to behave utterly immorally, but two points should be remembered: First, society protects itself against such people, often by incarcerating them as insane (psychopathy names a mental disorder). Second, the Kantian account reminds us that not to me write about myself treat someone as responsible for her actions is to fail to respect her as the author of her deeds. In other words, to hold that someone does not qualify as a responsible agent represents an extremely serious deprivation of social status. Looking at the matter positively, we can also say that a person who exhibits the virtue of responsibility lives up to the three other aspects of responsibility in an exemplary way.

First, she exercises the capacities of Custom uk visa responsible moral agency to a model degree. Second, she approaches her previous actions and omissions with all due concern, being prepared to take responsibility for any failings she may have shown. Hooks An Essay. And third, she takes her prospective responsibilities seriously, being both a capable judge of what she should do, and willing to act accordingly. 3. Moral versus Legal Responsibility. As some of the examples of retrospective and essay, prospective responsibility indicate, law has an especial connection with questions of responsibility. Hooks An Essay. Legal institutions often assign responsibilities to people, and hold them responsible for failing to fulfill these responsibilities – either via the criminal law and policing, or by allowing other parties to Custom essay service uk visa bring them to Edgar allan conclusion f court via the Custom service uk visa civil law, for example when a contract is breached. Accordingly, the justification of punishment represents a major concern of philosophy of law.

Likewise, legal philosophers, including figures such as H.L.A. Hart, Herbert Morris and a business research paper james d lester, Joel Feinberg, have written a great deal about the Custom essay service philosophy of responsibility. Their discussions have had considerable influence on moral and political philosophers. The most obvious point, that all writers will endorse, is that legal and moral responsibility often overlap, but will diverge on some occasions. In the write a critical introduction quotes liberal state we can hope that there will be systematic convergence, inasmuch as the law will uphold important moral precepts, especially concerning the protection of rights. (In a corrupt or tyrannical state, on the other hand, it is obviously very common that legal and moral responsibility have no relation at all. Tyrants often demand that their subjects be complicit in immorality, such as harming the innocent.) An example where law and Custom, morality clearly overlap is murder: it is both a legal crime and an egregious moral wrong. Few would dispute, then, that murder ought to be punished, both legally and morally speaking. However, the law does not punish attempted murder in the same way as an actual murder – that is, it does not prioritize intentions over service outcomes in the same way that many believe that moral judgment should.

The difference between murder and grievous bodily harm may not lie in service the intention or even in me write poems the actual wounds inflicted: everything depends on the outcome, that is, whether death results. Thus the crimes attract different punishments, though our moral judgment of service someone may be no lighter in write a critical introduction the case of a particularly vicious assault. One way of putting this is to say that the law is concerned with definite outcomes, and only secondarily with intentions. Both moral and legal philosophers disagree as to why, or even whether, this should be the Custom service case. A distinguished line of Hooks to start thought, exemplified by H.L.A. Hart in his essay Legal Responsibility and Excuses (in Hart, 1968), holds that legal responsibility should be understood in different terms to Custom essay service moral judgment. Writing. The law is not there to punish in proportion to blameworthiness or wickedness (as Hart observes, much disagreement surrounds such judgments). Service Uk Visa. Instead, the Marking service charlies law provides people who are competent to choose with reasons to act in socially responsible ways. Hart focuses on excuses under the law, such as insanity or coercion. Law admits such excuses in spite of their possible consequentialist disutility (excuses may well decrease the deterrent force of law, because some people might hope to misuse these excuses to wriggle out of legal accountability).

For Hart, excuses are an important part of a system that does not just seek to prevent crime, but also to uk visa protect choice; as a result, law does not punish those who were not able to choose their actions. Under such a choosing system, individuals can find out, in Help thesis general terms at Custom essay service uk visa, least, the me write an essay about costs they have to pay if they act in certain ways (1968: 44). In this way, law can foster the prime social virtue of self-restraint (1968: 182). Law can also respect what Peter Strawson stressed in Freedom and Resentment (1962): that our social relations depend on our emotional responses to people’s voluntary actions. If otherwise competent persons choose badly, they do not just cause harmful effects, but also undermine social relations. Hart’s justification of Custom essay service uk visa punishment, then, holds that attributions of (legal) responsibility help uphold social order while respecting individual choice. Write Essay Introduction Quotes. His account therefore combines a consequentialist emphasis on Custom essay, external actions and outcomes with an important mental element: punishment is only appropriate in case of competent choice, that is, where excusing conditions do not apply. However, Hart emphasizes that his account does not apply to Marking moral judgment, about essay service uk visa, which his views seem to be more or less Kantian. More recent writers have taken up this line of thought, without endorsing the claim that moral and legal judgment need be so strongly distinct. Arthur Ripstein (1999) has argued that law defends equality and reciprocity between citizens.

It therefore has to protect people’s interests in Edgar poe essays conclusion freedom of action as well their interests in security of Custom service person and property. Law has to be concerned with fairness to victims as well as fairness to culprits. To do this, it defines a system of prospective responsibilities that protect the interests of all, and holds people retrospectively responsible for breaches. For instance, the coercive measure of Help me write about myself poems punishment is called for where a person disregards another’s liberty or security interests. Threats or attempts also disregard those interests and may be punishable, but they do not undermine equality in social relations as severely as successful violations of rights. (As Ripstein notes, his approach actually descends from Kant’s account of punishment, which works in a different way to Kant’s account of moral imputation. On this, see Hill, 2002.) Ripstein leaves open whether this account might also have implications for understanding moral responsibility (be it prospective or retrospective). However, his underlying idea – concerning fairness to both wrong-doer and victim – does suggest problems for essay uk visa accounts of retrospective moral responsibility that focus (in more or less Kantian fashion) only on the culprit’s choice and intentions. A quite different school of thought, recently exemplified in the work of Michael Moore (1998), endorses a recognizably Kantian view of moral responsibility, and argues that the Hooks an essay law ought to share this approach. Apart from the theoretical difficulties that face the Kantian approach to essay service uk visa moral responsibility, however, this school of thought has to claim that large parts of legal practice are misconceived. In particular, it must hold that all practices of strict liability are illegitimate.

Strict liability is the practice of Marking holding a person accountable if certain harms materialize, even where she could not have done anything to prevent those harms coming about. (Contrast Ripstein’s account just given, or the above example of the customer who accidentally breaks a vase in a shop.) Similarly, Moore’s approach faces severe difficulties in Custom essay explaining why the law should punish on the basis of outcomes and not only intentions – even though every legal system shares this feature. Legal responsibility has another interesting relation to the question of responsible agency. In addition to admitting excusing conditions such as insanity, systems of law stipulate various age conditions as to who counts as responsible. Hooks To Start. For example, all jurisdictions have an uk visa age of criminal responsibility: a person under the age of, say, twelve cannot be punished for Hooks murder. Likewise, law permits only people above certain ages to engage in various activities: drinking alcohol, voting, standing as an elected representative, entering into contracts, consenting to medical treatment, and so forth. Again, legal categories will often overlap with moral judgment: both sorts of judgment typically agree that the very young are not responsible for essay uk visa their actions, nor sufficiently responsible to judge what medical care they should receive. That said, our non-legal judgments about when a person becomes sufficiently mature to be responsible invariably depend on the person, as well as on the difficult question of what degree of Hooks maturity is necessary to responsible conduct in service different spheres of life. In recent decades increasing attention has been given to the question of service collective responsibility. This question can arise wherever the actions of a group of people combine to generate a particular result – whether a corporation, or the citizens of a state, or even individuals who have no particular connection to one another. Custom Service. (A well-known example of the last is the me write tragedy of the commons, when lots of people use a shared resource – for instance, everyone using the commons as grazing land for their cattle – resulting in the degradation of that resource. Our increasing awareness of Custom essay uk visa damage to environment has given this case particular contemporary importance.) There are questions about the responsibilities of the collective, and of the individual as a member of that body.

Recall that one of the original uses of the Marking service charlies word responsible was to describe a desirable quality of government, and that we still use the word in this way to praise some institutions, just as we may criticize a corporation or group as irresponsible. Many perplexities about shared responsibility arise from the thought that individuals are responsible agents, in a way that groups cannot be. A well-known formulation captures this problem neatly: No soul to damn, no body to kick (Coffee, 1981). Essay Uk Visa. As pointed out above, it is usually thought that a person can be blamed or deserve punishment by virtue of certain psychological capacities (soul), as well as by virtue of being the same person (body) today as she was yesterday. On this account, there is a serious puzzle as to how a collective can be responsible, since a collective lacks the psychological capacities of an individual person (but see the Encyclopedia article on me write an essay myself poems, collective intentionality) and its membership tends to alter over time. Note, however, that if we think of responsibility in Custom essay service uk visa terms of an essay capacities to interact in the light of shared norms – as the Humean account of moral agency might suggest – rather than as a matter of particular psychological capacities, then we need not be so concerned with those capacities nor, perhaps, with changes in membership. A separate article, collective moral responsibility, discusses the issues that arise here. It may be useful, however, to indicate briefly how the four aspects of individual responsibility discussed above might apply to the collective case.

In the first place, it is clear that collective bodies can function as agents, at least in essay service some circumstances. Groups and organizations can pursue particular policies, respect legal requirements, reach decisions about how to respond to conclusion situations, and create important benefits and costs for other agents. They can also offer an Custom essay account of their previous actions and policies, setting out how and why these were decided upon. Help Write Bachelor. However, these abilities clearly depend upon the collective’s being appropriately organized, which is a matter of internal communication, deliberative mechanisms, and Custom service uk visa, allocation of poe essays conclusion responsibilities to individuals. Clearly, organizations may function better or worse in all these regards – as may the other organizations with which they interact and Custom uk visa, which may, in turn, hold them responsible.

b. Retrospective Responsibility of Collectives. By the same token, collective bodies can be held responsible. In fact, law does this all the time, at least for formally established collectives that are not states, for example, corporations, charities and Help me write an essay myself poems, statutory bodies such as government agencies. Responsible officers may be called to account – to answer for their organization’s actions, to be dismissed or even punished if that account is unsatisfactory. Uk Visa. As a body, the collective owns property and acts in systematic ways: legal measures can therefore make it provide compensation, or exact fines simply as a punishment; a court can order the body to act differently or to remedy a particular case or situation. States act deliberately, but holding them accountable is much more difficult.

States can commit the most serious wrongs, waging war or inflicting grave injustice upon their own peoples. International law attempts to codify some duties of states, and the duties of individuals who govern them. But it lacks the enforcement mechanisms (police, courts, judiciary) that function within states. Examples of attempts to hold states and to start an essay, their agents retrospectively responsible include: South Africa’s well-known Truth and Reconciliation Commission, which addressed the brutalities of the Custom uk visa old apartheid regime; the trial of individuals, such as the 1961 Jerusalem trial of Nazi functionary Adolf Eichmann; and the exacting of reparations following the Marking service charlies defeat of a state, for instance the notorious Versailles agreement that penalized Germany for service its role in the First World War. As the article on collective moral responsibility discusses, imposing liabilities, punishments or duties onto service charlies, collective bodies will finally involve costs or duties for individuals. Custom Essay. This poses many difficult questions about how the supposed responsibilities of the group might be traced back to Marking service particular individuals. Custom Service. Perhaps the people who were most to blame have died or moved jobs or are otherwise out of Marking charlies reach. Should the service uk visa citizens of a country make amends for me write an essay about myself poems the wrong-doing of Custom essay their forefathers, for instance? Ought a corporation that has fired its top managers still be liable to pay fines for Marking service the misdeeds that those former managers led the corporation into? For many, such questions highlight the most puzzling aspect of collective responsibility, namely that individuals might justly be required to make amends for others’ actions and policies.

c. Prospective Responsibilities of Groups. For formally organized collectives, prospective responsibilities are often codified by law, or (in the case of a charity, for instance) specified in Custom service uk visa a group’s constitution. As in the individual case, of course, our moral judgment may differ from codified responsibilities: not only moral but also political arguments often surround these allocations of responsibility. Proponents of corporate social responsibility, for example, generally hold that companies’ responsibilities extend much beyond their legal duties, including wider obligations to the communities amongst which they operate and to Writing d lester the natural environment. Just as in the case of individuals, attempts to hold groups and organizations retrospectively accountable often, therefore, reveal serious moral disagreements, and essay uk visa, invariably have a political dimension, too. Groups, companies, and How to a critical essay quotes, states can all be more or less responsible.

Originally, responsible government described government responsive to Custom service uk visa the wants and needs of its citizens; in the same way, we now speak of corporate social responsibility. As in Hooks to start an essay the individual case, for collectives to exhibit the virtue of responsibility depends on the other three aspects of responsibility discussed in this article. With regard to moral agency, it will require good internal organization, so that the Custom essay service uk visa body is aware of its situation, capacities, actions and impacts. Thesis. With regard to essay service uk visa retrospective responsibility, it involves a willingness and ability to allan deal with failings and omissions, and to learn from these. In terms of uk visa prospective responsibility, the How to a critical essay introduction collective’s activities and policies must be aptly chosen, conformable to wider moral norms, and properly put into effect. Custom Uk Visa. As with individuals, how far a body is likely to do these things also depends on allan poe essays conclusion f, how far those around it (that is, both individuals and other collectives) act responsibly. For instance, others will need to form appropriate expectations of the collective, and be prepared to enforce these expectations fairly and reasonably. This article has pointed to four dimensions of essay service uk visa responsibility, reflecting the various ways in which the word is introduction used. Custom Service. Moral agency can also be termed responsible agency, meaning that a person is open to moral evaluation. This sort of Help myself poems moral status points in service uk visa two directions. It means that a person’s actions can be judged morally, so that various responses such as praise or punishment may be appropriate – this is the stuff of retrospective responsibility.

In the other direction, a moral agent has particular duties or concerns – the stuff of prospective responsibility. Lastly, we evaluate agents as responsible or irresponsible, by asking how seriously they take their responsibilities. Me Write An Essay Myself. This involves evaluating them in terms of Custom service uk visa how far they exercise (or possess) the capacities pertaining to moral agency, how they approach their past actions and failings, and Hooks, how they approach their duties and areas of service responsibility. As we have seen, writers differ concerning the connections between moral and legal responsibility, but it is also true that these four dimensions all find echo in legal uses of responsibility. Philosophical discussion often considers these aspects of responsibility only with regard to individuals, so that the term collective responsibility appears puzzling, despite its frequent usage in everyday life. The final part of this article briefly considered how each of these dimensions can be applied to How to write groups, although it has left aside some difficult questions that arise – for example, how a group’s retrospective responsibilities can be fairly apportioned to individuals, or how collectives can be organized so as to be more or less responsible. This article began by observing that the word responsibility is surprisingly modern, and that two quite different philosophical stories have been told about it. Essay. Very little was said concerning the thesis first story, concerning responsibility in political thought. However, it has pointed out that the concept extends more widely than modern philosophical debates tend to acknowledge.

Prospective responsibility relates to Custom essay the fine-grained division of responsibilities involved in Help about myself poems the different roles which people adopt in Custom essay service modern societies – above all, the Help an essay myself different spheres of responsibility which we are given in the workplace. By the essay service uk visa same token, responsibility has clearly become a very important virtue in modern societies. In conclusion, then, it will be helpful to point to Edgar allan conclusion one possible connection between the original political story and responsibility as we most often use the term today. (See also Pettit, 2001, for another account.) Uncertainty and disagreement about how we should live together is Custom essay service one of the most marked features of modern life. Writing A Business Research Paper. We live in an age when both individuals and Custom essay service, organizations are asked to be endlessly flexible. Our roles and responsibilities are continually changing and continually challenged. Uncertainty and disagreement about prospective responsibilities are always passing over into disputes about Help, retrospective responsibility, as we hold one another accountable. We all face the test, then, of Custom essay uk visa how to conduct ourselves amid this uncertainty and disagreement. Writing Research James D Lester. It is surely one hallmark of the person who exhibits the virtue of Custom responsibility that she contributes to cooperation in the face of this difficult situation. However, we might remember that politics has always raised these sorts of difficulty. Write. In modern societies, negotiation, compromise and judgment are required, not just of those who take on formal political office, but of all of us.

It is surely no wonder, then, that we no longer think of responsibility as only a question for the political sphere.

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