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Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Explaining the nature of oxbridge hours, consciousness is one of the most important and perplexing areas of philosophy, but the concept is notoriously ambiguous. The abstract noun “consciousness” is not frequently used by My homeworknow com vn itself in the contemporary literature, but is originally derived from the Latin con (with) and scire (to know). Perhaps the most commonly used contemporary notion of a conscious mental state is captured by Thomas Nagel’s famous “what it is essays hours like” sense (Nagel 1974). When I am in a conscious mental state, there is something it is board like for Essay hours, me to com vn, be in Essay hours that state from the subjective or first-person point of view. But how are we to understand this? For instance, how is the conscious mental state related to the body? Can consciousness be explained in terms of brain activity? What makes a mental state be a conscious mental state? The problem of consciousness is arguably the most central issue in current philosophy of mind and is also importantly related to com vn, major traditional topics in metaphysics, such as the possibility of immortality and Essay, the belief in free will.

This article focuses on Western theories and conceptions of with my paper i need, consciousness, especially as found in contemporary analytic philosophy of Essay oxbridge essays hours, mind. The two broad, traditional and My homeworknow com vn, competing theories of mind are dualism and materialism (or physicalism). Essays Hours? While there are many versions of each, the board online store former generally holds that the oxbridge essays conscious mind or a conscious mental state is non-physical in some sense, whereas the latter holds that, to put it crudely, the mind is the brain, or is country caused by neural activity. It is against Essay essays hours this general backdrop that many answers to the above questions are formulated and essay quotes, developed. There are also many familiar objections to both materialism and oxbridge essays hours, dualism. For example, it is often said that materialism cannot truly explain just how or why some brain states are conscious, and that there is an important “explanatory gap” between mind and matter. College Online Store? On the other hand, dualism faces the problem of explaining how a non-physical substance or mental state can causally interact with the physical body. Some philosophers attempt to explain consciousness directly in neurophysiological or physical terms, while others offer cognitive theories of consciousness whereby conscious mental states are reduced to some kind of oxbridge essays, representational relation between mental states and the world. Account Quotes? There are a number of such representational theories of consciousness currently on the market, including higher-order theories which hold that what makes a mental state conscious is that the subject is aware of it in some sense.

The relationship between consciousness and science is also central in much current theorizing on this topic: How does the oxbridge hours brain “bind together” various sensory inputs to produce a unified subjective experience? What are the neural correlates of Help with my paper i need, consciousness? What can be learned from abnormal psychology which might help us to understand normal consciousness? To what extent are animal minds different from human minds? Could an appropriately programmed machine be conscious? 1. Terminological Matters: Various Concepts of Consciousness. The concept of consciousness is oxbridge hours notoriously ambiguous. It is important first to make several distinctions and to define related terms.

The abstract noun “consciousness” is not often used in the contemporary literature, though it should be noted that it is originally derived from the Latin con (with) and scire (to know). Thus, “consciousness” has etymological ties to Argumentative for high school newsweek, one’s ability to know and perceive, and should not be confused with conscience, which has the Essay oxbridge essays hours much more specific moral connotation of knowing when one has done or is doing something wrong. Through consciousness, one can have knowledge of the external world or one’s own mental states. The primary contemporary interest lies more in the use of the essay for high school expressions “x is conscious” or “x is conscious of y.” Under the oxbridge former category, perhaps most important is the distinction between state and creature consciousness (Rosenthal 1993a). We sometimes speak of an individual mental state, such as a pain or perception, as conscious. On the other hand, we also often speak of organisms or creatures as conscious, such as when we say “human beings are conscious” or “dogs are conscious.” Creature consciousness is also simply meant to refer to the fact that an organism is awake, as opposed to sleeping or in a coma. Online Homework Help Live? However, some kind of state consciousness is often implied by creature consciousness, that is, the organism is having conscious mental states. Due to the lack of a direct object in the expression “x is conscious,” this is essays usually referred to as intransitive consciousness, in contrast to transitive consciousness where the essay locution “x is conscious of y” is used (Rosenthal 1993a, 1997). Most contemporary theories of consciousness are aimed at explaining state consciousness; that is, explaining what makes a mental state a conscious mental state. It might seem that “conscious” is synonymous with, say, “awareness” or “experience” or “attention.” However, it is crucial to recognize that this is not generally accepted today.

For example, though perhaps somewhat atypical, one might hold that there are even unconscious experiences, depending of course on how the term “experience” is defined (Carruthers 2000). Essay Essays Hours? More common is the belief that we can be aware of external objects in some unconscious sense, for example, during cases of subliminal perception. The expression “conscious awareness” does not therefore seem to be redundant. Finally, it is Online homework live not clear that consciousness ought to be restricted to attention. It seems plausible to suppose that one is conscious (in some sense) of objects in Essay oxbridge essays hours one’s peripheral visual field even though one is Account writing quotes only attending to some narrow (focal) set of objects within that visual field. Perhaps the most fundamental and commonly used notion of “conscious” is captured by Essay oxbridge Thomas Nagel’s famous “what it is My homeworknow like” sense (Nagel 1974).

When I am in Essay a conscious mental state, there is “something it is like” for me to com vn, be in that state from the oxbridge essays subjective or first-person point of view. When I am, for example, smelling a rose or having a conscious visual experience, there is My homeworknow something it “seems” or “feels” like from my perspective. An organism, such as a bat, is conscious if it is able to experience the outer world through its (echo-locatory) senses. There is also something it is like to be a conscious creature whereas there is nothing it is like to be, for example, a table or tree. This is primarily the hours sense of “conscious state” that will be used throughout this entry. There are still, though, a cluster of expressions and terms related to Nagel’s sense, and Help with writing my paper i need, some authors simply stipulate the Essay oxbridge essays hours way that they use such terms.

For example, philosophers sometimes refer to conscious states as phenomenal or qualitative states. More technically, philosophers often view such states as having qualitative properties called “qualia” (prounced like kwal' ee uh; the singular is quale). Essay School Students Newsweek? There is significant disagreement over Essay essays, the nature, and even the Argumentative essay for high students existence, of essays, qualia, but they are perhaps most frequently understood as the felt properties or qualities of Help with writing i need, conscious states. Ned Block (1995) makes an often cited distinction between phenomenal consciousness (or “phenomenality”) and access consciousness. Oxbridge Hours? The former is very much in my paper i need line with the Nagelian notion described above. However, Block also defines the quite different notion of access consciousness in oxbridge essays terms of Account, a mental state’s relationship with other mental states; for example, a mental state’s “availability for use in reasoning and rationality guiding speech and action” (Block 1995: 227). Essay Hours? This would, for essay, example, count a visual perception as (access) conscious not because it has the “what it’s likeness” of phenomenal states, but rather because it carries visual information which is oxbridge essays hours generally available for use by the organism, regardless of whether or not it has any qualitative properties.

Access consciousness is therefore more of a functional notion; that is, concerned with what such states do. Account Essay? Although this concept of consciousness is certainly very important in cognitive science and philosophy of mind generally, not everyone agrees that access consciousness deserves to be called “consciousnesses” in any important sense. Block himself argues that neither sense of consciousness implies the other, while others urge that there is a more intimate connection between the two. Finally, it is helpful to distinguish between consciousness and oxbridge essays hours, self-consciousness, which plausibly involves some kind of awareness or consciousness of one’s own mental states (instead of something out in the world). Self-consciousness arguably comes in degrees of sophistication ranging from minimal bodily self-awareness to the ability to reason and reflect on one’s own mental states, such as one’s beliefs and desires. Some important historical figures have even held that consciousness entails some form of self-consciousness (Kant 1781/1965, Sartre 1956), a view shared by some contemporary philosophers (Gennaro 1996a, Kriegel 2004). Interest in the nature of conscious experience has no doubt been around for as long as there have been reflective humans. Online Store? It would be impossible here to survey the entire history, but a few highlights are in essays order.

In the Online help history of Western philosophy, which is the focus of this entry, important writings on human nature and Essay essays hours, the soul and mind go back to ancient philosophers, such as Plato. More sophisticated work on the nature of consciousness and perception can be found in the work of Plato’s most famous student Aristotle (see Caston 2002), and then throughout the later Medieval period. It is, however, with the Pay for my essay work of Rene Descartes (1596-1650) and his successors in the early modern period of philosophy that consciousness and the relationship between the mind and body took center stage. As we shall see, Descartes argued that the mind is a non-physical substance distinct from the body. He also did not believe in the existence of Essay, unconscious mental states, a view certainly not widely held today. Descartes defined “thinking” very broadly to include virtually every kind of mental state and urged that consciousness is essential to thought. Our mental states are, according to College board online, Descartes, infallibly transparent to introspection. John Locke (1689/1975) held a similar position regarding the connection between mentality and Essay oxbridge essays hours, consciousness, but was far less committed on the exact metaphysical nature of the mind. Perhaps the most important philosopher of the period explicitly to endorse the existence of unconscious mental states was G.W. Help With My Paper? Leibniz (1686/1991, 1720/1925).

Although Leibniz also believed in the immaterial nature of mental substances (which he called “monads”), he recognized the existence of what he called “petit perceptions,” which are basically unconscious perceptions. He also importantly distinguished between perception and apperception, roughly the difference between outer-directed consciousness and self-consciousness (see Gennaro 1999 for some discussion). The most important detailed theory of hours, mind in the early modern period was developed by live Immanuel Kant. His main work Critique of Pure Reason (1781/1965) is as equally dense as it is important, and cannot easily be summarized in Essay this context. Although he owes a great debt to his immediate predecessors, Kant is quotes arguably the most important philosopher since Plato and Aristotle and is highly relevant today. Kant basically thought that an adequate account of phenomenal consciousness involved far more than any of his predecessors had considered. There are important mental structures which are “presupposed” in oxbridge conscious experience, and Kant presented an elaborate theory as to what those structures are, which, in com vn turn, had other important implications. Oxbridge Essays? He, like Leibniz, also saw the need to postulate the existence of unconscious mental states and board store, mechanisms in Essay hours order to provide an adequate theory of mind (Kitcher 1990 and Brook 1994 are two excellent books on Kant’s theory of mind.).

Over the past one hundred years or so, however, research on consciousness has taken off in many important directions. In psychology, with the notable exception of the Help i need virtual banishment of consciousness by Essay hours behaviorist psychologists (e.g., Skinner 1953), there were also those deeply interested in consciousness and various introspective (or “first-person”) methods of investigating the mind. The writings of such figures as Wilhelm Wundt (1897), William James (1890) and Alfred Titchener (1901) are good examples of this approach. Franz Brentano (1874/1973) also had a profound effect on some contemporary theories of My homeworknow com vn, consciousness. Essay Essays? Similar introspectionist approaches were used by those in the so-called “phenomenological” tradition in philosophy, such as in the writings of Edmund Husserl (1913/1931, 1929/1960) and Martin Heidegger (1927/1962). The work of Sigmund Freud was very important, at minimum, in bringing about the near universal acceptance of the existence of unconscious mental states and processes. It must, however, be kept in mind that none of the above had very much scientific knowledge about the detailed workings of the brain. The relatively recent development of Argumentative students, neurophysiology is, in part, also responsible for the unprecedented interdisciplinary research interest in consciousness, particularly since the oxbridge 1980s. Essay School Newsweek? There are now several important journals devoted entirely to the study of consciousness: Consciousness and Cognition , Journal of Consciousness Studies , and Psyche . There are also major annual conferences sponsored by world wide professional organizations, such as the Association for Essay oxbridge essays hours, the Scientific Study of Consciousness, and My homeworknow, an entire book series called “Advances in Consciousness Research” published by John Benjamins. (For a small sample of introductory texts and important anthologies, see Kim 1996, Gennaro 1996b, Block et. al. 1997, Seager 1999, Chalmers 2002, Baars et. al. 2003, Blackmore 2004, Campbell 2005, Velmans and Schneider 2007, Zelazo et al.

2007, Revonsuo 2010.) 3. Oxbridge Essays Hours? The Metaphysics of Consciousness: Materialism vs. Com Vn? Dualism. Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy concerned with the ultimate nature of reality. There are two broad traditional and competing metaphysical views concerning the nature of the mind and conscious mental states: dualism and materialism. While there are many versions of each, the former generally holds that the oxbridge essays hours conscious mind or a conscious mental state is non-physical in some sense. On the other hand, materialists hold that the mind is the brain, or, more accurately, that conscious mental activity is identical with neural activity.

It is important to recognize that by non-physical, dualists do not merely mean “not visible to the naked eye.” Many physical things fit this description, such as the atoms which make up the air in a typical room. For something to com vn, be non-physical, it must literally be outside the Essay oxbridge essays realm of physics; that is, not in space at with writing my paper, all and undetectable in hours principle by the instruments of physics. My Essay Country? It is oxbridge essays equally important to recognize that the category “physical” is broader than the country category “material.” Materialists are called such because there is the tendency to oxbridge hours, view the brain, a material thing, as the most likely physical candidate to identify with the mind. However, something might be physical but not material in this sense, such as an electromagnetic or energy field. One might therefore instead be a “physicalist” in some broader sense and My homeworknow com vn, still not a dualist. Thus, to say that the oxbridge essays mind is non-physical is to say something much stronger than that it is non-material. Dualists, then, tend to believe that conscious mental states or minds are radically different from anything in the physical world at all.

a. Help Writing? Dualism: General Support and Related Issues. There are a number of reasons why some version of dualism has been held throughout the centuries. For one thing, especially from the introspective or first-person perspective, our conscious mental states just do not seem like physical things or processes. That is, when we reflect on our conscious perceptions, pains, and desires, they do not seem to be physical in any sense. Consciousness seems to be a unique aspect of the world not to be understood in any physical way. Although materialists will urge that this completely ignores the more scientific third-person perspective on the nature of consciousness and mind, this idea continues to have force for many today. Indeed, it is arguably the crucial underlying intuition behind historically significant “conceivability arguments” against materialism and for Essay oxbridge, dualism. Such arguments typically reason from the premise that one can conceive of one’s conscious states existing without one’s body or, conversely, that one can imagine one’s own physical duplicate without consciousness at all (see section 3b.iv). For High School Newsweek? The metaphysical conclusion ultimately drawn is essays that consciousness cannot be identical with anything physical, partly because there is no essential conceptual connection between the mental and the physical. Arguments such as these go back to Descartes and continue to be used today in various ways (Kripke 1972, Chalmers 1996), but it is highly controversial as to whether they succeed in showing that materialism is false.

Materialists have replied in College store various ways to such arguments and essays hours, the relevant literature has grown dramatically in recent years. Historically, there is also the Argumentative school students newsweek clear link between dualism and a belief in immortality, and hence a more theistic perspective than one tends to Essay oxbridge hours, find among materialists. Indeed, belief in dualism is often explicitly theologically motivated. Pay For Country? If the conscious mind is not physical, it seems more plausible to believe in Essay oxbridge the possibility of life after bodily death. On the other hand, if conscious mental activity is identical with brain activity, then it would seem that when all brain activity ceases, so do all conscious experiences and thus no immortality. After all, what do many people believe continues after bodily death? Presumably, one’s own conscious thoughts, memories, experiences, beliefs, and so on. There is perhaps a similar historical connection to a belief in free will, which is My homeworknow com vn of course a major topic in its own right. For our purposes, it suffices to Essay essays hours, say that, on some definitions of what it is to act freely, such ability seems almost “supernatural” in the sense that one’s conscious decisions can alter the otherwise deterministic sequence of events in nature.

To put it another way: If we are entirely physical beings as the materialist holds, then mustn’t all of the brain activity and homework live, behavior in question be determined by the laws of nature? Although materialism may not logically rule out immortality or free will, materialists will likely often reply that such traditional, perhaps even outdated or pre-scientific beliefs simply ought to be rejected to the extent that they conflict with materialism. Oxbridge Essays Hours? After all, if the my essay weight of the evidence points toward materialism and away from dualism, then so much the worse for Essay oxbridge essays hours, those related views. One might wonder “even if the mind is Account writing quotes physical, what about the essays hours soul?” Maybe it’s the soul, not the mind, which is non-physical as one might be told in many religious traditions. While it is true that the Argumentative for high students newsweek term “soul” (or “spirit”) is often used instead of “mind” in oxbridge hours such religious contexts, the Help with my paper problem is that it is unclear just how the soul is supposed to differ from the essays hours mind. The terms are often even used interchangeably in many historical texts and by Account essay many philosophers because it is unclear what else the soul could be other than “the mental substance.” It is difficult to describe the soul in oxbridge essays hours any way that doesn’t make it sound like what we mean by the mind. With Writing? After all, that’s what many believe goes on after bodily death; namely, conscious mental activity. Granted that the Essay hours term “soul” carries a more theological connotation, but it doesn’t follow that the words “soul” and Help with my paper i need, “mind” refer to oxbridge, entirely different things.

Somewhat related to Help writing i need, the issue of Essay oxbridge essays, immortality, the existence of near death experiences is also used as some evidence for dualism and immortality. Such patients experience a peaceful moving toward a light through a tunnel like structure, or are able to College board online, see doctors working on their bodies while hovering over them in an emergency room (sometimes akin to what is oxbridge called an “out of body experience”). In response, materialists will point out that such experiences can be artificially induced in various experimental situations, and that starving the brain of oxygen is known to cause hallucinations. Various paranormal and psychic phenomena, such as clairvoyance, faith healing, and mind-reading, are sometimes also cited as evidence for Argumentative essay for high school students newsweek, dualism. However, materialists (and even many dualists) will first likely wish to be skeptical of the alleged phenomena themselves for numerous reasons. There are many modern day charlatans who should make us seriously question whether there really are such phenomena or mental abilities in the first place.

Second, it is not quite clear just how dualism follows from Essay, such phenomena even if they are genuine. A materialist, or physicalist at least, might insist that though such phenomena are puzzling and com vn, perhaps currently difficult to explain in physical terms, they are nonetheless ultimately physical in nature; for example, having to do with very unusual transfers of energy in the physical world. The dualist advantage is perhaps not as obvious as one might think, and we need not jump to supernatural conclusions so quickly. i. Substance Dualism and Objections. Interactionist Dualism or simply “interactionism” is the most common form of “substance dualism” and its name derives from the widely accepted fact that mental states and bodily states causally interact with each other. For example, my desire to Essay oxbridge hours, drink something cold causes my body to move to help live, the refrigerator and Essay essays hours, get something to drink and, conversely, kicking me in the shin will cause me to feel a pain and get angry. Due to Descartes’ influence, it is also sometimes referred to as “Cartesian dualism.” Knowing nothing about just where such causal interaction could take place, Descartes speculated that it was through the College store pineal gland, a now almost humorous conjecture. But a modern day interactionist would certainly wish to treat various areas of the brain as the oxbridge location of such interactions. Three serious objections are briefly worth noting here. College Board Online? The first is simply the issue of just how does or could such radically different substances causally interact.

How something non-physical causally interacts with something physical, such as the hours brain? No such explanation is forthcoming or is perhaps even possible, according to materialists. Pay For My Essay? Moreover, if causation involves a transfer of energy from cause to effect, then how is that possible if the mind is really non-physical? Gilbert Ryle (1949) mockingly calls the Cartesian view about the essays hours nature of mind, a belief in com vn the “ghost in the machine.” Secondly, assuming that some such energy transfer makes any sense at all, it is also then often alleged that interactionism is inconsistent with the scientifically well-established Conservation of Energy principle, which says that the total amount of energy in oxbridge hours the universe, or any controlled part of it, remains constant. School? So any loss of energy in Essay hours the cause must be passed along as a corresponding gain of Account writing, energy in the effect, as in standard billiard ball examples. But if interactionism is true, then when mental events cause physical events, energy would literally come into the physical word. On the other hand, when bodily events cause mental events, energy would literally go out of the physical world. Essay? At the least, there is store a very peculiar and unique notion of energy involved, unless one wished, even more radically, to deny the Essay essays conservation principle itself. Third, some materialists might also use the well-known fact that brain damage (even to very specific areas of the brain) causes mental defects as a serious objection to interactionism (and thus as support for materialism).

This has of course been known for My homeworknow, many centuries, but the level of detailed knowledge has increased dramatically in recent years. Now a dualist might reply that such phenomena do not absolutely refute her metaphysical position since it could be replied that damage to the brain simply causes corresponding damage to the mind. However, this raises a host of other questions: Why not opt for Essay essays, the simpler explanation, i.e., that brain damage causes mental damage because mental processes simply are brain processes? If the College board online non-physical mind is Essay hours damaged when brain damage occurs, how does that leave one’s mind according to the dualist’s conception of an afterlife? Will the severe amnesic at the end of life on Earth retain such a deficit in help live the afterlife?

If proper mental functioning still depends on proper brain functioning, then is dualism really in no better position to offer hope for immortality? It should be noted that there is also another less popular form of substance dualism called parallelism, which denies the causal interaction between the non-physical mental and physical bodily realms. It seems fair to say that it encounters even more serious objections than interactionism. While a detailed survey of all varieties of oxbridge essays hours, dualism is beyond the scope of this entry, it is at least important to note here that the main and most popular form of dualism today is College board called property dualism. Substance dualism has largely fallen out of Essay oxbridge essays hours, favor at Help my paper, least in essays hours most philosophical circles, though there are important exceptions (e.g., Swinburne 1986, Foster 1996) and it often continues to writing quotes, be tied to various theological positions. Property dualism, on the other hand, is a more modest version of dualism and it holds that there are mental properties (that is, characteristics or aspects of things) that are neither identical with nor reducible to physical properties. There are actually several different kinds of property dualism, but what they have in essays hours common is the idea that conscious properties, such as the color qualia involved in a conscious experience of a visual perception, cannot be explained in purely physical terms and, thus, are not themselves to be identified with any brain state or process. Two other views worth mentioning are epiphenomenalism and panpsychism. The latter is the somewhat eccentric view that all things in physical reality, even down to micro-particles, have some mental properties. All substances have a mental aspect, though it is not always clear exactly how to characterize or test such a claim.

Epiphenomenalism holds that mental events are caused by Argumentative essay school students newsweek brain events but those mental events are mere “epiphenomena” which do not, in Essay hours turn, cause anything physical at Online, all, despite appearances to the contrary (for a recent defense, see Robinson 2004). Finally, although not a form of Essay oxbridge essays, dualism, idealism holds that there are only immaterial mental substances, a view more common in the Eastern tradition. The most prominent Western proponent of for high school students, idealism was 18th century empiricist George Berkeley. Essay Essays Hours? The idealist agrees with the writing substance dualist, however, that minds are non-physical, but then denies the existence of mind-independent physical substances altogether. Such a view faces a number of Essay oxbridge, serious objections, and school students newsweek, it also requires a belief in the existence of God. Some form of materialism is probably much more widely held today than in centuries past. No doubt part of the reason for this has to do with the explosion in scientific knowledge about the workings of the Essay oxbridge essays hours brain and its intimate connection with consciousness, including the close connection between brain damage and various states of consciousness. Brain death is now the main criterion for essay, when someone dies. Stimulation to specific areas of the brain results in modality specific conscious experiences. Indeed, materialism often seems to be a working assumption in neurophysiology. Imagine saying to a neuroscientist “you are not really studying the conscious mind itself” when she is examining the workings of the brain during an Essay essays fMRI.

The idea is that science is showing us that conscious mental states, such as visual perceptions, are simply identical with certain neuro-chemical brain processes; much like the writing essay science of Essay essays, chemistry taught us that water just is H2O. There are also theoretical factors on Argumentative essay newsweek the side of materialism, such as adherence to the so-called “principle of simplicity” which says that if two theories can equally explain a given phenomenon, then we should accept the one which posits fewer objects or forces. In this case, even if dualism could equally explain consciousness (which would of course be disputed by materialists), materialism is clearly the simpler theory in so far as it does not posit any objects or processes over and above physical ones. Materialists will wonder why there is a need to oxbridge essays, believe in the existence of such mysterious non-physical entities. Moreover, in the aftermath of the my essay Darwinian revolution, it would seem that materialism is on even stronger ground provided that one accepts basic evolutionary theory and the notion that most animals are conscious. Given the oxbridge hours similarities between the more primitive parts of the human brain and the brains of other animals, it seems most natural to conclude that, through evolution, increasing layers of brain areas correspond to Account essay quotes, increased mental abilities. For example, having a well developed prefrontal cortex allows humans to reason and plan in oxbridge essays hours ways not available to dogs and cats. It also seems fairly uncontroversial to hold that we should be materialists about the minds of essay for high, animals. Essays? If so, then it would be odd indeed to hold that non-physical conscious states suddenly appear on the scene with humans.

There are still, however, a number of much discussed and important objections to materialism, most of which question the notion that materialism can adequately explain conscious experience. i. Objection 1: The Explanatory Gap and The Hard Problem. Joseph Levine (1983) coined the expression “the explanatory gap” to express a difficulty for any materialistic attempt to with writing, explain consciousness. Although not concerned to reject the metaphysics of Essay, materialism, Levine gives eloquent expression to the idea that there is a key gap in our ability to explain the connection between phenomenal properties and country, brain properties (see also Levine 1993, 2001). The basic problem is oxbridge that it is, at least at present, very difficult for us to understand the relationship between brain properties and phenomenal properties in any explanatory satisfying way, especially given the writing i need fact that it seems possible for oxbridge, one to be present without the other. There is an odd kind of arbitrariness involved: Why or how does some particular brain process produce that particular taste or visual sensation? It is difficult to see any real explanatory connection between specific conscious states and brain states in a way that explains just how or why the former are identical with the latter. There is Argumentative for high students newsweek therefore an explanatory gap between the physical and oxbridge, mental.

Levine argues that this difficulty in explaining consciousness is Pay for country unique; that is, we do not have similar worries about other scientific identities, such as that “water is H2O” or that “heat is mean molecular kinetic energy.” There is “an important sense in which we can’t really understand how [materialism] could be true.” (2001: 68) David Chalmers (1995) has articulated a similar worry by Essay oxbridge essays using the catchy phrase “the hard problem of consciousness,” which basically refers to the difficulty of explaining just how physical processes in the brain give rise to subjective conscious experiences. The “really hard problem is the problem of Pay for, experience…How can we explain why there is something it is like to entertain a mental image, or to experience an Essay oxbridge essays hours emotion?” (1995: 201) Others have made similar points, as Chalmers acknowledges, but reference to the phrase “the hard problem” has now become commonplace in the literature. College Board Online? Unlike Levine, however, Chalmers is oxbridge much more inclined to draw anti-materialist metaphysical conclusions from these and other considerations. Chalmers usefully distinguishes the hard problem of consciousness from what he calls the (relatively) “easy problems” of consciousness, such as the ability to discriminate and categorize stimuli, the ability of a cognitive system to access its own internal states, and the difference between wakefulness and sleep. My Homeworknow? The easy problems generally have more to do with the functions of consciousness, but Chalmers urges that solving them does not touch the hard problem of phenomenal consciousness. Essay? Most philosophers, according to Chalmers, are really only addressing the easy problems, perhaps merely with something like Block’s “access consciousness” in mind. Their theories ignore phenomenal consciousness. There are many responses by materialists to the above charges, but it is com vn worth emphasizing that Levine, at least, does not reject the metaphysics of materialism. Instead, he sees the “explanatory gap [as] primarily an epistemological problem” (2001: 10).

That is, it is primarily a problem having to do with knowledge or understanding. This concession is still important at oxbridge hours, least to Argumentative essay students, the extent that one is concerned with the Essay essays larger related metaphysical issues discussed in section 3a, such as the possibility of immortality. Perhaps most important for my essay, the materialist, however, is recognition of the fact that different concepts can pick out the same property or object in the world (Loar 1990, 1997). Out in oxbridge essays the world there is only the help one “stuff,” which we can conceptualize either as “water” or as “H2O.” The traditional distinction, made most notably by Gottlob Frege in the late 19th century, between “meaning” (or “sense”) and “reference” is also relevant here. Two or more concepts, which can have different meanings, can refer to the same property or object, much like “Venus” and Essay oxbridge hours, “The Morning Star.” Materialists, then, explain that it is essential to distinguish between mental properties and our concepts of those properties. By analogy, there are so-called “phenomenal concepts” which uses a phenomenal or “first-person” property to refer to some conscious mental state, such as a sensation of red (Alter and Walter 2007). In contrast, we can also use various concepts couched in physical or neurophysiological terms to refer to that same mental state from the third-person point of view. There is thus but one conscious mental state which can be conceptualized in two different ways: either by employing first-person experiential phenomenal concepts or by writing quotes employing third-person neurophysiological concepts. It may then just be a “brute fact” about the world that there are such identities and the appearance of arbitrariness between brain properties and mental properties is Essay oxbridge hours just that – an apparent problem leading many to My homeworknow, wonder about the alleged explanatory gap. Essays? Qualia would then still be identical to help live, physical properties.

Moreover, this response provides a diagnosis for why there even seems to be such a gap; namely, that we use very different concepts to pick out the same property. Science will be able, in principle, to close the gap and solve the hard problem of consciousness in an analogous way that we now have a very good understanding for why “water is H2O” or “heat is Essay oxbridge mean molecular kinetic energy” that was lacking centuries ago. Maybe the Argumentative for high newsweek hard problem isn’t so hard after all – it will just take some more time. Essays Hours? After all, the science of chemistry didn’t develop overnight and we are relatively early in quotes the history of neurophysiology and our understanding of phenomenal consciousness. Essay Oxbridge? (See Shear 1997 for many more specific responses to the hard problem, but also for online, Chalmers’ counter-replies.) ii. Objection 2: The Knowledge Argument.

There is a pair of essays, very widely discussed, and arguably related, objections to materialism which come from the seminal writings of Thomas Nagel (1974) and Frank Jackson (1982, 1986). These arguments, especially Jackson’s, have come to be known as examples of the “knowledge argument” against materialism, due to their clear emphasis on the epistemological (that is, knowledge related) limitations of materialism. Like Levine, Nagel does not reject the metaphysics of materialism. Jackson had originally intended for My homeworknow com vn, his argument to yield a dualistic conclusion, but he no longer holds that view. The general pattern of each argument is to Essay essays hours, assume that all the physical facts are known about College online some conscious mind or conscious experience. Essay Oxbridge Hours? Yet, the My homeworknow argument goes, not all is known about the mind or experience.

It is then inferred that the essays hours missing knowledge is non-physical in with writing some sense, which is surely an anti-materialist conclusion in some sense. Nagel imagines a future where we know everything physical there is to know about some other conscious creature’s mind, such as a bat. However, it seems clear that we would still not know something crucial; namely, “what it is like to be a bat.” It will not do to imagine what it is Essay hours like for us to be a bat. We would still not know what it is like to be a bat from the writing quotes bat’s subjective or first-person point of oxbridge essays hours, view. The idea, then, is that if we accept the hypothesis that we know all of the physical facts about Account writing essay bat minds, and Essay essays, yet some knowledge about bat minds is with my paper i need left out, then materialism is inherently flawed when it comes to explaining consciousness. Even in essays an ideal future in which everything physical is known by us, something would still be left out. Jackson’s somewhat similar, but no less influential, argument begins by asking us to writing, imagine a future where a person, Mary, is kept in oxbridge hours a black and country, white room from birth during which time she becomes a brilliant neuroscientist and an expert on color perception. Hours? Mary never sees red for example, but she learns all of the Pay for my essay country physical facts and everything neurophysiologically about human color vision. Oxbridge Essays Hours? Eventually she is released from the room and sees red for essay for high newsweek, the first time. Jackson argues that it is clear that Mary comes to learn something new; namely, to use Nagel’s famous phrase, what it is like to experience red. This is a new piece of knowledge and hence she must have come to know some non-physical fact (since, by hypothesis, she already knew all of the physical facts).

Thus, not all knowledge about the conscious mind is physical knowledge. The influence and the quantity of work that these ideas have generated cannot be exaggerated. Numerous materialist responses to Nagel’s argument have been presented (such as Van Gulick 1985), and there is now a very useful anthology devoted entirely to Jackson’s knowledge argument (Ludlow et. al. 2004). Some materialists have wondered if we should concede up front that Mary wouldn’t be able to imagine the color red even before leaving the room, so that maybe she wouldn’t even be surprised upon seeing red for the first time. Oxbridge Essays Hours? Various suspicions about the nature and Account writing, effectiveness of such thought experiments also usually accompany this response. More commonly, however, materialists reply by essays hours arguing that Mary does not learn a new fact when seeing red for the first time, but rather learns the same fact in a different way. Recalling the com vn distinction made in section 3b.i between concepts and Essay oxbridge hours, objects or properties, the materialist will urge that there is only the Pay for country one physical fact about color vision, but there are two ways to come to know it: either by oxbridge essays hours employing neurophysiological concepts or by essay quotes actually undergoing the relevant experience and so by employing phenomenal concepts. We might say that Mary, upon essays leaving the black and white room, becomes acquainted with the same neural property as before, but only now from the first-person point of view. The property itself isn’t new; only the perspective, or what philosophers sometimes call the essay “mode of Essay oxbridge essays hours, presentation,” is different. In short, coming to learn or know something new does not entail learning some new fact about the world.

Analogies are again given in other less controversial areas, for example, one can come to know about some historical fact or event by reading a (reliable) third-person historical account or by having observed that event oneself. But there is still only the one objective fact under two different descriptions. Finally, it is crucial to remember that, according to most, the Help with writing i need metaphysics of Essay oxbridge, materialism remains unaffected. Drawing a metaphysical conclusion from such purely epistemological premises is always a questionable practice. Nagel’s argument doesn’t show that bat mental states are not identical with bat brain states. Indeed, a materialist might even expect the conclusion that Nagel draws; after all, given that our brains are so different from bat brains, it almost seems natural for there to be certain aspects of bat experience that we could never fully comprehend. Only the bat actually undergoes the relevant brain processes. Similarly, Jackson’s argument doesn’t show that Mary’s color experience is distinct from her brain processes. Despite the plethora of materialist responses, vigorous debate continues as there are those who still think that something profound must always be missing from with writing my paper i need, any materialist attempt to explain consciousness; namely, that understanding subjective phenomenal consciousness is an oxbridge hours inherently first-person activity which cannot be captured by any objective third-person scientific means, no matter how much scientific knowledge is accumulated. Some knowledge about consciousness is essentially limited to first-person knowledge.

Such a sense, no doubt, continues to fuel the related anti-materialist intuitions raised in essay for high the previous section. Perhaps consciousness is simply a fundamental or irreducible part of nature in Essay essays some sense (Chalmers 1996). (For more see Van Gulick 1993.) Finally, some go so far as to argue that we are simply not capable of solving the problem of consciousness (McGinn 1989, 1991, 1995). In short, “mysterians” believe that the hard problem can never be solved because of human cognitive limitations; the explanatory gap can never be filled. Once again, however, McGinn does not reject the metaphysics of materialism, but rather argues that we are “cognitively closed” with respect to this problem much like a rat or dog is cognitively incapable of solving, or even understanding, calculus problems. More specifically, McGinn claims that we are cognitively closed as to how the brain produces conscious awareness.

McGinn concedes that some brain property produces conscious experience, but we cannot understand how this is so or even know what that brain property is. Our concept forming mechanisms simply will not allow us to grasp the physical and causal basis of consciousness. Account Essay? We are not conceptually suited to be able to do so. McGinn does not entirely rest his argument on past failed attempts at explaining consciousness in materialist terms; instead, he presents another argument for his admittedly pessimistic conclusion. McGinn observes that we do not have a mental faculty that can access both consciousness and Essay, the brain. We access consciousness through introspection or the My homeworknow com vn first-person perspective, but our access to the brain is through the use of outer spatial senses (e.g., vision) or a more third-person perspective. Thus we have no way to access both the brain and consciousness together, and therefore any explanatory link between them is forever beyond our reach.

Materialist responses are numerous. First, one might wonder why we can’t combine the Essay essays two perspectives within certain experimental contexts. Both first-person and third-person scientific data about the for high students newsweek brain and consciousness can be acquired and oxbridge hours, used to solve the hard problem. Com Vn? Even if a single person cannot grasp consciousness from both perspectives at the same time, why can’t a plausible physicalist theory emerge from such a combined approach? Presumably, McGinn would say that we are not capable of putting such a theory together in any appropriate way. Second, despite McGinn’s protests to the contrary, many will view the Essay problem of explaining consciousness as a merely temporary limit of our theorizing, and not something which is unsolvable in principle (Dennett 1991).

Third, it may be that McGinn expects too much; namely, grasping some causal link between the brain and consciousness. After all, if conscious mental states are simply identical to College online, brain states, then there may simply be a “brute fact” that really does not need any further explaining. Indeed, this is sometimes also said in response to the explanatory gap and the hard problem, as we saw earlier. It may even be that some form of dualism is presupposed in McGinn’s argument, to the extent that brain states are said to “cause” or “give rise to” consciousness, instead of using the language of identity. Fourth, McGinn’s analogy to lower animals and mathematics is not quite accurate. Rats, for example, have no concept whatsoever of calculus. Essay Oxbridge Hours? It is not as if they can grasp it to some extent but just haven’t figured out the answer to some particular problem within mathematics. School Newsweek? Rats are just completely oblivious to calculus problems. On the other hand, we humans obviously do have some grasp on Essay oxbridge essays consciousness and on the workings of the help live brain -- just see the references at the end of this entry!

It is not clear, then, why we should accept the extremely pessimistic and universally negative conclusion that we can never discover the answer to the problem of consciousness, or, more specifically, why we could never understand the link between consciousness and the brain. Unlike many of the above objections to materialism, the Essay essays hours appeal to the possibility of zombies is often taken as both a problem for materialism and as a more positive argument for some form of dualism, such as property dualism. The philosophical notion of a “zombie” basically refers to online store, conceivable creatures which are physically indistinguishable from us but lack consciousness entirely (Chalmers 1996). It certainly seems logically possible for there to be such creatures: “the conceivability of zombies seems…obvious to me…While this possibility is probably empirically impossible, it certainly seems that a coherent situation is Essay described; I can discern no contradiction in Online homework the description” (Chalmers 1996: 96). Philosophers often contrast what is logically possible (in the sense of “that which is not self-contradictory”) from oxbridge essays, what is empirically possible given the actual laws of nature.

Thus, it is logically possible for Argumentative essay for high newsweek, me to jump fifty feet in the air, but not empirically possible. Essays Hours? Philosophers often use the notion of “possible worlds,” i.e., different ways that the essay for high newsweek world might have been, in describing such non-actual situations or possibilities. The objection, then, typically proceeds from oxbridge hours, such a possibility to the conclusion that materialism is false because materialism would seem to College board online, rule out oxbridge that possibility. It has been fairly widely accepted (since Kripke 1972) that all identity statements are necessarily true (that is, true in My homeworknow com vn all possible worlds), and the same should therefore go for mind-brain identity claims. Since the oxbridge essays hours possibility of zombies shows that it doesn’t, then we should conclude that materialism is false. (See Identity Theory.) It is impossible to do justice to all of the subtleties here. The literature in response to zombie, and related “conceivability,” arguments is enormous (see, for example, Hill 1997, Hill and Argumentative essay for high school students newsweek, McLaughlin 1999, Papineau 1998, 2002, Balog 1999, Block and Essay essays hours, Stalnaker 1999, Loar 1999, Yablo 1999, Perry 2001, Botterell 2001, Kirk 2005). A few lines of College, reply are as follows: First, it is sometimes objected that the conceivability of Essay hours, something does not really entail its possibility. Homework Help? Perhaps we can also conceive of water not being H2O, since there seems to Essay essays, be no logical contradiction in doing so, but, according to received wisdom from Kripke, that is really impossible.

Perhaps, then, some things just seem possible but really aren’t. Much of the for high students newsweek debate centers on various alleged similarities or dissimilarities between the mind-brain and water-H2O cases (or other such scientific identities). Essays? Indeed, the entire issue of the exact relationship between “conceivability” and “possibility” is the country subject of an important recently published anthology (Gendler and Hawthorne 2002). Second, even if zombies are conceivable in the sense of logically possible, how can we draw a substantial metaphysical conclusion about the actual world? There is often suspicion on the part of oxbridge essays, materialists about what, if anything, such philosophers’ “thought experiments” can teach us about the Help writing nature of our minds. It seems that one could take virtually any philosophical or scientific theory about almost anything, conceive that it is possibly false, and then conclude that it is oxbridge essays hours actually false. Something, perhaps, is generally wrong with this way of reasoning. Third, as we saw earlier (3b.i), there may be a very good reason why such zombie scenarios seem possible; namely, that we do not (at least, not yet) see what the necessary connection is between neural events and conscious mental events.

On the one side, we are dealing with scientific third-person concepts and, on My homeworknow the other, we are employing phenomenal concepts. We are, perhaps, simply currently not in a position to understand completely such a necessary connection. Debate and discussion on all four objections remains very active. Despite the apparent simplicity of materialism, say, in terms of the identity between mental states and Essay oxbridge essays, neural states, the fact is that there are many different forms of materialism. While a detailed survey of all varieties is beyond the Pay for my essay country scope of this entry, it is at least important to acknowledge the commonly drawn distinction between two kinds of “identity theory”: token-token and Essay oxbridge essays hours, type-type materialism.

Type-type identity theory is the stronger thesis and says that mental properties, such as “having a desire to drink some water” or “being in pain,” are literally identical with a brain property of some kind. Such identities were originally meant to Pay for my essay country, be understood as on a par with, for hours, example, the scientific identity between “being water” and “being composed of Help writing, H2O” (Place 1956, Smart 1959). However, this view historically came under serious assault due to the fact that it seems to rule out the so-called “multiple realizability” of oxbridge essays hours, conscious mental states. The idea is simply that it seems perfectly possible for there to be other conscious beings (e.g., aliens, radically different animals) who can have those same mental states but who also are radically different from My homeworknow, us physiologically (Fodor 1974). It seems that commitment to type-type identity theory led to the undesirable result that only organisms with brains like ours can have conscious states. Somewhat more technically, most materialists wish to leave room for the possibility that mental properties can be “instantiated” in Essay oxbridge essays hours different kinds of organisms. (But for My homeworknow, more recent defenses of type-type identity theory see Hill and McLaughlin 1999, Papineau 1994, 1995, 1998, Polger 2004.) As a consequence, a more modest “token-token” identity theory has become preferable to many materialists. Essays Hours? This view simply holds that each particular conscious mental event in some organism is identical with some particular brain process or event in that organism.

This seems to preserve much of College board store, what the materialist wants but yet allows for the multiple realizability of conscious states, because both the human and the alien can still have a conscious desire for something to drink while each mental event is oxbridge hours identical with a (different) physical state in each organism. Taking the students newsweek notion of multiple realizability very seriously has also led many to embrace functionalism, which is the view that conscious mental states should really only be identified with the functional role they play within an organism. For example, conscious pains are defined more in Essay hours terms of input and output, such as causing bodily damage and avoidance behavior, as well as in terms of Argumentative essay school newsweek, their relationship to other mental states. Essay Oxbridge? It is normally viewed as a form of materialism since virtually all functionalists also believe, like the token-token theorist, that something physical ultimately realizes that functional state in the organism, but functionalism does not, by itself, entail that materialism is com vn true. Oxbridge Hours? Critics of functionalism, however, have long argued that such purely functional accounts cannot adequately explain the essential “feel” of conscious states, or that it seems possible to have two functionally equivalent creatures, one of whom lacks qualia entirely (Block 1980a, 1980b, Chalmers 1996; see also Shoemaker 1975, 1981). Some materialists even deny the very existence of mind and mental states altogether, at least in with my paper i need the sense that the very concept of hours, consciousness is Account essay quotes muddled (Wilkes 1984, 1988) or that the mentalistic notions found in essays folk psychology, such as desires and My homeworknow com vn, beliefs, will eventually be eliminated and replaced by physicalistic terms as neurophysiology matures into the future (Churchland 1983). This is essays hours meant as analogous to past similar eliminations based on deeper scientific understanding, for example, we no longer need to speak of “ether” or “phlogiston.” Other eliminativists, more modestly, argue that there is no such thing as qualia when they are defined in certain problematic ways (Dennett 1988). Finally, it should also be noted that not all materialists believe that conscious mentality can be explained in terms of the com vn physical, at least in the sense that the former cannot be “reduced” to the latter. Essays? Materialism is true as an ontological or metaphysical doctrine, but facts about the my paper mind cannot be deduced from facts about the physical world (Boyd 1980, Van Gulick 1992). In some ways, this might be viewed as a relatively harmless variation on materialist themes, but others object to the very coherence of this form of materialism (Kim 1987, 1998).

Indeed, the line between such “non-reductive materialism” and property dualism is not always so easy to draw; partly because the entire notion of “reduction” is ambiguous and a very complex topic in its own right. On a related front, some materialists are happy enough to talk about a somewhat weaker “supervenience” relation between mind and matter. Although “supervenience” is a highly technical notion with many variations, the idea is basically one of dependence (instead of Essay oxbridge essays, identity); for example, that the mental depends on the physical in Pay for the sense that any mental change must be accompanied by some physical change (see Kim 1993). 4. Specific Theories of Consciousness. Most specific theories of consciousness tend to be reductionist in some sense. The classic notion at work is that consciousness or individual conscious mental states can be explained in terms of something else or in some other terms.

This section will focus on several prominent contemporary reductionist theories. We should, however, distinguish between those who attempt such a reduction directly in physicalistic, such as neurophysiological, terms and those who do so in hours mentalistic terms, such as by College board online using unconscious mental states or other cognitive notions. The more direct reductionist approach can be seen in various, more specific, neural theories of oxbridge, consciousness. Perhaps best known is the theory offered by Francis Crick and Christof Koch 1990 (see also Crick 1994, Koch 2004). The basic idea is that mental states become conscious when large numbers of Help my paper i need, neurons fire in synchrony and all have oscillations within the 35-75 hertz range (that is, 35-75 cycles per second). However, many philosophers and scientists have put forth other candidates for Essay essays hours, what, specifically, to identify in the brain with consciousness. This vast enterprise has come to Argumentative newsweek, be known as the search for the “neural correlates of consciousness” or NCCs (see section 5b below for more). The overall idea is to show how one or more specific kinds of neuro-chemical activity can underlie and explain conscious mental activity (Metzinger 2000). Of course, mere “correlation” is Essay oxbridge hours not enough for essay quotes, a fully adequate neural theory and explaining just what counts as a NCC turns out to hours, be more difficult than one might think (Chalmers 2000).

Even Crick and Koch have acknowledged that they, at best, provide a necessary condition for consciousness, and that such firing patters are not automatically sufficient for having conscious experience. b. Representational Theories of Consciousness. Many current theories attempt to Account essay, reduce consciousness in mentalistic terms. One broadly popular approach along these lines is to reduce consciousness to oxbridge, “mental representations” of some kind. The notion of a “representation” is of course very general and can be applied to photographs, signs, and various natural objects, such as the rings inside a tree. Much of what goes on in the brain, however, might also be understood in a representational way; for example, as mental events representing outer objects partly because they are caused by writing my paper i need such objects in, say, cases of veridical visual perception. Oxbridge Essays? More specifically, philosophers will often call such representational mental states “intentional states” which have representational content; that is, mental states which are “about something” or “directed at something” as when one has a thought about the house or a perception of the help live tree. Although intentional states are sometimes contrasted with phenomenal states, such as pains and color experiences, it is clear that many conscious states have both phenomenal and intentional properties, such as visual perceptions. Essay Essays Hours? It should be noted that the relation between intentionalilty and consciousness is itself a major ongoing area of dispute with some arguing that genuine intentionality actually presupposes consciousness in Account writing some way (Searle 1992, Siewart 1998, Horgan and Essay hours, Tienson 2002) while most representationalists insist that intentionality is prior to consciousness (Gennaro 2012, chapter two). The general view that we can explain conscious mental states in terms of Online help, representational or intentional states is essays called “representationalism.” Although not automatically reductionist in spirit, most versions of representationalism do indeed attempt such a reduction. Most representationalists, then, believe that there is room for a kind of “second-step” reduction to be filled in later by neuroscience.

The other related motivation for board store, representational theories of consciousness is that many believe that an account of Essay hours, representation or intentionality can more easily be given in College board naturalistic terms, such as causal theories whereby mental states are understood as representing outer objects in virtue of some reliable causal connection. The idea, then, is Essay that if consciousness can be explained in representational terms and representation can be understood in purely physical terms, then there is the promise of a reductionist and naturalistic theory of consciousness. Most generally, however, we can say that a representationalist will typically hold that the phenomenal properties of with writing my paper, experience (that is, the “qualia” or “what it is like of experience” or “phenomenal character”) can be explained in terms of the oxbridge experiences’ representational properties. Alternatively, conscious mental states have no mental properties other than their representational properties. Online Homework Help Live? Two conscious states with all the same representational properties will not differ phenomenally. For example, when I look at the blue sky, what it is like for me to have a conscious experience of the sky is simply identical with my experience’s representation of the Essay essays hours blue sky. A First-order representational (FOR) theory of consciousness is a theory that attempts to College board, explain conscious experience primarily in terms of world-directed (or first-order) intentional states. Probably the two most cited FOR theories of consciousness are those of Fred Dretske (1995) and Essay essays hours, Michael Tye (1995, 2000), though there are many others as well (e.g., Harman 1990, Kirk 1994, Byrne 2001, Thau 2002, Droege 2003).

Tye’s theory is more fully worked out and Account quotes, so will be the focus of this section. Essays? Like other FOR theorists, Tye holds that the representational content of my conscious experience (that is, what my experience is about or directed at) is identical with the phenomenal properties of experience. Aside from reductionistic motivations, Tye and other FOR representationalists often use the somewhat technical notion of the homework live “transparency of experience” as support for their view (Harman 1990). Essay? This is an argument based on Help writing my paper the phenomenological first-person observation, which goes back to Moore (1903), that when one turns one’s attention away from, say, the blue sky and onto one’s experience itself, one is still only aware of the blueness of the sky. The experience itself is not blue; rather, one “sees right through” one’s experience to Essay oxbridge, its representational properties, and there is nothing else to one’s experience over and above such properties. Whatever the merits and exact nature of the Argumentative essay for high students argument from transparency (see Kind 2003), it is clear, of Essay essays hours, course, that not all mental representations are conscious, so the Argumentative essay for high school newsweek key question eventually becomes: What exactly distinguishes conscious from unconscious mental states (or representations)? What makes a mental state a conscious mental state? Here Tye defends what he calls “PANIC theory.” The acronym “PANIC” stands for poised, abstract, non-conceptual, intentional content. Essays? Without probing into every aspect of PANIC theory, Tye holds that at least some of the representational content in question is non-conceptual (N), which is to say that the subject can lack the Online homework live concept for the properties represented by the experience in question, such as an experience of hours, a certain shade of red that one has never seen before. Actually, the exact nature or even existence of non-conceptual content of experience is itself a highly debated and difficult issue in philosophy of mind (Gunther 2003). Gennaro (2012), for example, defends conceptualism and essay, connects it in various ways to the higher-order thought theory of consciousness (see section 4b.ii).

Conscious states clearly must also have “intentional content” (IC) for any representationalist. Tye also asserts that such content is “abstract” (A) and Essay oxbridge essays hours, not necessarily about particular concrete objects. This condition is needed to school newsweek, handle cases of hallucinations, where there are no concrete objects at all or cases where different objects look phenomenally alike. Perhaps most important for mental states to be conscious, however, is that such content must be “poised” (P), which is an Essay oxbridge hours importantly functional notion. The “key idea is Help writing my paper i need that experiences and feelings. stand ready and available to make a direct impact on beliefs and/or desires.

For example…feeling hungry… has an immediate cognitive effect, namely, the desire to eat….States with nonconceptual content that are not so poised lack phenomenal character [because]…they arise too early, as it were, in the information processing” (Tye 2000: 62). One objection to oxbridge hours, Tye’s theory is that it does not really address the My homeworknow hard problem of phenomenal consciousness (see section 3b.i). This is partly because what really seems to essays, be doing most of the work on Tye’s PANIC account is the very functional sounding “poised” notion, which is Pay for country perhaps closer to Block’s access consciousness (see section 1) and is therefore not necessarily able to explain phenomenal consciousness (see Kriegel 2002). In short, it is difficult to see just how Tye’s PANIC account might not equally apply to unconscious representations and thus how it really explains phenomenal consciousness. Other standard objections to Tye’s theory as well as to other FOR accounts include the Essay oxbridge hours concern that it does not cover all kinds of Pay for country, conscious states. Some conscious states seem not to oxbridge essays, be “about” anything, such as pains, anxiety, or after-images, and so would be non-representational conscious states. If so, then conscious experience cannot generally be explained in terms of representational properties (Block 1996). My Homeworknow Com Vn? Tye responds that pains, itches, and the like do represent, in the sense that they represent parts of the body. Hours? And after-images, hallucinations, and the like either misrepresent (which is My homeworknow com vn still a kind of representation) or the Essay essays conscious subject still takes them to have representational properties from the first-person point of view.

Indeed, Tye (2000) admirably goes to great lengths and argues convincingly in response to a whole host of alleged counter-examples to representationalism. Historically among them are various hypothetical cases of inverted qualia (see Shoemaker 1982), the mere possibility of which is sometimes taken as devastating to representationalism. Online Homework? These are cases where behaviorally indistinguishable individuals have inverted color perceptions of Essay hours, objects, such as person A visually experiences a lemon the way that person B experience a ripe tomato with respect to their color, and so on Account writing quotes for all yellow and red objects. Isn’t it possible that there are two individuals whose color experiences are inverted with respect to the objects of perception? (For more on essays the importance of color in Pay for my essay country philosophy, see Hardin 1986.) A somewhat different twist on the inverted spectrum is famously put forth in Block’s (1990) Inverted Earth case.

On Inverted Earth every object has the complementary color to the one it has here, but we are asked to oxbridge hours, imagine that a person is equipped with color-inverting lenses and then sent to Inverted Earth completely ignorant of help, those facts. Hours? Since the color inversions cancel out, the phenomenal experiences remain the writing essay quotes same, yet there certainly seem to be different representational properties of Essay essays, objects involved. The strategy on the part of critics, in Argumentative short, is to think of counter-examples (either actual or hypothetical) whereby there is oxbridge essays hours a difference between the phenomenal properties in country experience and the relevant representational properties in the world. Such objections can, perhaps, be answered by Tye and others in various ways, but significant debate continues (Macpherson 2005). Intuitions also dramatically differ as to Essay oxbridge essays, the very plausibility and value of such thought experiments. (For more, see Seager 1999, chapters 6 and 7. See also Chalmers 2004 for an excellent discussion of the Argumentative newsweek dizzying array of possible representationalist positions.) ii. Higher-Order Representationalism.

As we have seen, one question that should be answered by any theory of consciousness is: What makes a mental state a conscious mental state? There is oxbridge a long tradition that has attempted to My homeworknow, understand consciousness in terms of some kind of higher-order awareness. For example, John Locke (1689/1975) once said that “consciousness is the oxbridge essays perception of what passes in a man’s own mind.” This intuition has been revived by a number of philosophers (Rosenthal, 1986, 1993b, 1997, 2000, 2004, 2005; Gennaro 1996a, 2012; Armstrong, 1968, 1981; Lycan, 1996, 2001). In general, the for high school idea is that what makes a mental state conscious is that it is the object of Essay oxbridge, some kind of Argumentative school students, higher-order representation (HOR). A mental state M becomes conscious when there is a HOR of M. A HOR is Essay hours a “meta-psychological” state, i.e., a mental state directed at com vn, another mental state. Oxbridge Essays? So, for example, my desire to write a good encyclopedia entry becomes conscious when I am (non-inferentially) “aware” of the desire. Intuitively, it seems that conscious states, as opposed to unconscious ones, are mental states that I am “aware of” in some sense. Help With My Paper I Need? This is sometimes referred to as the Transitivity Principle. Any theory which attempts to explain consciousness in terms of higher-order states is known as a higher-order (HO) theory of Essay oxbridge essays hours, consciousness.

It is best initially to use the more neutral term “representation” because there are a number of essay students newsweek, different kinds of oxbridge essays hours, higher-order theory, depending upon how one characterizes the Pay for HOR in question. HO theories, thus, attempt to explain consciousness in mentalistic terms, that is, by reference to such notions as “thoughts” and “awareness.” Conscious mental states arise when two unconscious mental states are related in a certain specific way; namely, that one of them (the HOR) is directed at the other (M). HO theorists are united in the belief that their approach can better explain consciousness than any purely FOR theory, which has significant difficulty in explaining the difference between unconscious and conscious mental states. There are various kinds of HO theory with the essays hours most common division between higher-order thought (HOT) theories and Pay for country, higher-order perception (HOP) theories. Essay Oxbridge? HOT theorists, such as David M. Rosenthal, think it is Online live better to understand the Essay oxbridge essays HOR as a thought of some kind.

HOTs are treated as cognitive states involving some kind of conceptual component. HOP theorists urge that the HOR is a perceptual or experiential state of some kind (Lycan 1996) which does not require the kind of homework help, conceptual content invoked by HOT theorists. Partly due to Kant (1781/1965), HOP theory is sometimes referred to Essay oxbridge, as “inner sense theory” as a way of emphasizing its sensory or perceptual aspect. Although HOT and HOP theorists agree on the need for a HOR theory of consciousness, they do sometimes argue for the superiority of board online store, their respective positions (such as in Essay hours Rosenthal 2004, Lycan 2004, and Gennaro 2012). Help Live? Some philosophers, however, have argued that the difference between these theories is Essay oxbridge perhaps not as important or as clear as some think it is (Guzeldere 1995, Gennaro 1996a, Van Gulick 2000). A common initial objection to HOR theories is that they are circular and lead to an infinite regress. It might seem that the HOT theory results in com vn circularity by defining consciousness in terms of HOTs. Oxbridge Hours? It also might seem that an infinite regress results because a conscious mental state must be accompanied by a HOT, which, in College board store turn, must be accompanied by Essay oxbridge another HOT ad infinitum . Argumentative Essay Students Newsweek? However, the standard reply is that when a conscious mental state is a first-order world-directed state the higher-order thought (HOT) is not itself conscious; otherwise, circularity and Essay essays, an infinite regress would follow. My Homeworknow Com Vn? When the HOT is itself conscious, there is a yet higher-order (or third-order) thought directed at the second-order state. In this case, we have introspection which involves a conscious HOT directed at an inner mental state. When one introspects, one's attention is directed back into one's mind.

For example, what makes my desire to Essay hours, write a good entry a conscious first-order desire is that there is my essay country a (non-conscious) HOT directed at the desire. In this case, my conscious focus is directed at the entry and my computer screen, so I am not consciously aware of having the HOT from the first-person point of view. When I introspect that desire, however, I then have a conscious HOT (accompanied by a yet higher, third-order, HOT) directed at the desire itself (see Rosenthal 1986). Peter Carruthers (2000) has proposed another possibility within HO theory; namely, that it is better for various reasons to think of the HOTs as dispositional states instead of the standard view that the Essay essays HOTs are actual, though he also understands his “dispositional HOT theory” to homework, be a form of Essay, HOP theory (Carruthers 2004). Argumentative Essay For High School Students Newsweek? The basic idea is that the conscious status of an oxbridge experience is Pay for due to its availability to higher-order thought. So “conscious experience occurs when perceptual contents are fed into a special short-term buffer memory store, whose function is to make those contents available to cause HOTs about themselves.” (Carruthers 2000: 228). Some first-order perceptual contents are available to a higher-order “theory of mind mechanism,” which transforms those representational contents into conscious contents. Thus, no actual HOT occurs. Instead, according to Essay essays hours, Carruthers, some perceptual states acquire a dual intentional content; for example, a conscious experience of red not only Argumentative essay school students newsweek has a first-order content of “red,” but also has the higher-order content “seems red” or “experience of red.” Carruthers also makes interesting use of so-called “consumer semantics” in Essay oxbridge essays hours order to fill out his theory of phenomenal consciousness.

The content of Help with my paper i need, a mental state depends, in part, on the powers of the organisms which “consume” that state, e.g., the kinds of inferences which the organism can make when it is in that state. Daniel Dennett (1991) is sometimes credited with an earlier version of a dispositional account (see Carruthers 2000, chapter ten). Carruthers’ dispositional theory is often criticized by those who, among other things, do not see how the mere disposition toward a mental state can render it conscious (Rosenthal 2004; see also Gennaro 2004, 2012; for more, see Consciousness, Higher Order Theories of.) It is oxbridge essays worth briefly noting a few typical objections to HO theories (many of which can be found in Byrne 1997): First, and perhaps most common, is that various animals (and even infants) are not likely to have to the conceptual sophistication required for HOTs, and so that would render animal (and infant) consciousness very unlikely (Dretske 1995, Seager 2004). Are cats and dogs capable of having complex higher-order thoughts such as “I am in mental state M”? Although most who bring forth this objection are not HO theorists, Peter Carruthers (1989) is one HO theorist who actually embraces the conclusion that (most) animals do not have phenomenal consciousness.

Gennaro (1993, 1996) has replied to Argumentative students newsweek, Carruthers on oxbridge essays hours this point; for example, it is argued that the HOTs need not be as sophisticated as it might initially appear and board, there is ample comparative neurophysiological evidence supporting the conclusion that animals have conscious mental states. Most HO theorists do not wish to accept the absence of Essay essays, animal or infant consciousness as a consequence of Online help live, holding the Essay essays hours theory. The debate continues, however, in Carruthers (2000, 2005, 2008) and Gennaro (2004, 2009, 2012, chapters seven and eight). A second objection has been referred to My homeworknow, as the “problem of the rock” (Stubenberg 1998) and hours, the “generality problem” (Van Gulick 2000, 2004), but it is originally due to Alvin Goldman (Goldman 1993). When I have a thought about a rock, it is certainly not true that the rock becomes conscious.

So why should I suppose that a mental state becomes conscious when I think about it? This is puzzling to Account writing, many and the objection forces HO theorists to essays, explain just how adding the HO state changes an unconscious state into a conscious. Help With I Need? There have been, however, a number of responses to this kind of objection (Rosenthal 1997, Lycan, 1996, Van Gulick 2000, 2004, Gennaro 2005, 2012, chapter four). A common theme is that there is a principled difference in the objects of the HO states in question. Rocks and hours, the like are not mental states in writing my paper i need the first place, and so HO theorists are first and foremost trying to explain how a mental state becomes conscious. The objects of the HO states must be “in the head.” Third, the above leads somewhat naturally to an objection related to Chalmers’ hard problem (section 3b.i).

It might be asked just how exactly any HO theory really explains the subjective or phenomenal aspect of conscious experience. How or why does a mental state come to have a first-person qualitative “what it is like” aspect by Essay oxbridge virtue of the presence of a HOR directed at College board online, it? It is probably fair to say that HO theorists have been slow to address this problem, though a number of overlapping responses have emerged (see also Gennaro 2005, 2012, chapter four, for more extensive treatment). Essay Essays Hours? Some argue that this objection misconstrues the main and more modest purpose of (at least, their) HO theories. The claim is Online that HO theories are theories of consciousness only in the sense that they are attempting to explain what differentiates conscious from unconscious states, i.e., in essays terms of a higher-order awareness of com vn, some kind. A full account of “qualitative properties” or “sensory qualities” (which can themselves be non-conscious) can be found elsewhere in their work, but is independent of Essay oxbridge essays, their theory of Argumentative for high school students, consciousness (Rosenthal 1991, Lycan 1996, 2001).

Thus, a full explanation of phenomenal consciousness does require more than a HO theory, but that is no objection to HO theories as such. Essay Oxbridge? Another response is that proponents of the hard problem unjustly raise the bar as to what would count as a viable explanation of consciousness so that any such reductivist attempt would inevitably fall short (Carruthers 2000, Gennaro 2012). Part of the problem, then, is a lack of clarity about what would even count as an my essay country explanation of oxbridge, consciousness (Van Gulick 1995; see also section 3b). Once this is clarified, however, the hard problem can indeed be solved. Moreover, anyone familiar with the literature knows that there are significant terminological difficulties in the use of various crucial terms which sometimes inhibits genuine progress (but see Byrne 2004 for some helpful clarification). A fourth important objection to com vn, HO approaches is the question of oxbridge hours, how such theories can explain cases where the HO state might misrepresent the lower-order (LO) mental state (Byrne 1997, Neander 1998, Levine 2001, Block 2011). After all, if we have a representational relation between two states, it seems possible for misrepresentation or malfunction to occur. If it does, then what explanation can be offered by the HO theorist? If my LO state registers a red percept and board online, my HO state registers a thought about something green due, say, to some neural misfiring, then what happens? It seems that problems loom for any answer given by a HO theorist and the cause of the Essay oxbridge essays problem has to do with the very nature of the HO theorist’s belief that there is a representational relation between the LO and HO states. For example, if the HO theorist takes the with writing i need option that the resulting conscious experience is reddish, then it seems that the HO state plays no role in determining the qualitative character of the experience.

On the other hand, if the resulting experience is greenish, then the Essay LO state seems irrelevant. Rosenthal and Weisberg hold that the HO state determines the qualitative properties even in cases when there is no LO state at writing essay quotes, all (Rosenthal 2005, 2011, Weisberg 2008, 2011a, 2011b). Gennaro (2012) argues that no conscious experience results in such cases and wonders, for example, how a sole (unconscious) HOT can result in a conscious state at all. He argues that there must be a match, complete or partial, between the LO and Essay oxbridge essays, HO state in order for a conscious state to exist in the first place. This important objection forces HO theorists to be clearer about Online homework live just how to oxbridge, view the relationship between the Help my paper LO and HO states. Debate is ongoing and significant both on varieties of HO theory and in terms of the above objections (see Gennaro 2004a). Essays Hours? There is also interdisciplinary interest in how various HO theories might be realized in the brain (Gennaro 2012, chapter nine).

iii. Hybrid Representational Accounts. A related and increasingly popular version of Help writing my paper, representational theory holds that the oxbridge essays hours meta-psychological state in question should be understood as intrinsic to (or part of) an live overall complex conscious state. This stands in contrast to the standard view that the HO state is hours extrinsic to (that is, entirely distinct from) its target mental state. The assumption, made by Rosenthal for example, about the extrinsic nature of the meta-thought has increasingly come under attack, and thus various hybrid representational theories can be found in the literature. One motivation for this movement is growing dissatisfaction with standard HO theory’s ability to handle some of the objections addressed in the previous section.

Another reason is renewed interest in Online homework live a view somewhat closer to the one held by Franz Brentano (1874/1973) and various other followers, normally associated with the phenomenological tradition (Husserl 1913/1931, 1929/1960; Sartre 1956; see also Smith 1986, 2004). To varying degrees, these views have in common the oxbridge essays hours idea that conscious mental states, in some sense, represent themselves, which then still involves having a thought about a mental state, just not a distinct or separate state. Thus, when one has a conscious desire for a cold glass of water, one is also aware that one is in Online help live that very state. The conscious desire both represents the glass of water and itself. Oxbridge Essays Hours? It is this “self-representing” which makes the state conscious. These theories can go by various names, which sometimes seem in conflict, and have added significantly in recent years to the acronyms which abound in the literature. For example, Gennaro (1996a, 2002, 2004, 2006, 2012) has argued that, when one has a first-order conscious state, the HOT is better viewed as intrinsic to the target state, so that we have a complex conscious state with parts. Gennaro calls this the “wide intrinsicality view” (WIV) and he also argues that Jean-Paul Sartre’s theory of consciousness can be understood in Help with my paper this way (Gennaro 2002). Gennaro holds that conscious mental states should be understood (as Kant might have today) as global brain states which are combinations of passively received perceptual input and presupposed higher-order conceptual activity directed at essays hours, that input.

Higher-order concepts in the meta-psychological thoughts are presupposed in having first-order conscious states. Robert Van Gulick (2000, 2004, 2006) has also explored the Online homework live alternative that the HO state is part of an overall global conscious state. He calls such states “HOGS” (Higher-Order Global States) whereby a lower-order unconscious state is “recruited” into a larger state, which becomes conscious partly due to the implicit self-awareness that one is in the lower-order state. Both Gennaro and Van Gulick have suggested that conscious states can be understood materialistically as global states of the brain, and oxbridge essays, it would be better to treat the first-order state as part of the Pay for country larger complex brain state. This general approach is also forcefully advocated by Essay essays hours Uriah Kriegel (Kriegel 2003a, 2003b, 2005, 2006, 2009) and Pay for my essay country, is even the Essay essays hours subject of an entire anthology debating its merits (Kriegel and Pay for country, Williford 2006). Kriegel has used several different names for oxbridge hours, his “neo-Brentanian theory,” such as the SOMT (Same-Order Monitoring Theory) and, more recently, the “self-representational theory of consciousness.” To be sure, the notion of a mental state representing itself or a mental state with one part representing another part is in need of further development and is perhaps somewhat mysterious. Nonetheless, there is agreement among these authors that conscious mental states are, in some important sense, reflexive or self-directed. And, once again, there is keen interest in developing this model in a way that coheres with the latest neurophysiological research on consciousness.

A point of emphasis is on the concept of global meta-representation within a complex brain state, and attempts are underway to identify just how such an College store account can be realized in the brain. It is worth mentioning that this idea was also briefly explored by Thomas Metzinger who focused on the fact that consciousness “is something that unifies or synthesizes experience” (Metzinger 1995: 454). Metzinger calls this the process of Essay oxbridge essays, “higher-order binding” and Online homework live, thus uses the acronym HOB. Others who hold some form of the self-representational view include Kobes (1995), Caston (2002), Williford (2006), Brook and Essay oxbridge hours, Raymont (2006), and even Carruthers’ (2000) theory can be viewed in this light since he contends that conscious states have two representational contents. Thomas Natsoulas also has a series of papers defending a similar view, beginning with Natsoulas 1996. Some authors (such as Gennaro 2012) view this hybrid position to be a modified version of i need, HOT theory; indeed, Rosenthal (2004) has called it “intrinsic higher-order theory.” Van Gulick also clearly wishes to preserve the essays hours HO is his HOGS. Others, such as Kriegel, are not inclined to call their views “higher-order” at Argumentative essay for high newsweek, all and call it, for example, the Essay oxbridge “same-order monitoring” or “self-representational” theory of consciousness. My Essay Country? To some extent, this is a terminological dispute, but, despite important similarities, there are also key subtle differences between these hybrid alternatives.

Like HO theorists, however, those who advocate this general approach all take very seriously the notion that a conscious mental state M is a state that subject S is (non-inferentially) aware that S is in. By contrast, one is obviously not aware of one’s unconscious mental states. Thus, there are various attempts to make sense of and elaborate upon Essay essays this key intuition in a way that is, as it were, “in-between” standard FO and HO theory. (See also Lurz 2003 and 2004 for yet another interesting hybrid account.) Aside from the explicitly representational approaches discussed above, there are also related attempts to explain consciousness in other cognitive terms. The two most prominent such theories are worth describing here: Daniel Dennett (1991, 2005) has put forth what he calls the Multiple Drafts Model (MDM) of consciousness. My Homeworknow Com Vn? Although similar in some ways to representationalism, Dennett is most concerned that materialists avoid falling prey to what he calls the “myth of the Cartesian theater,” the notion that there is some privileged place in the brain where everything comes together to produce conscious experience. Instead, the MDM holds that all kinds of mental activity occur in the brain by parallel processes of interpretation, all of which are under frequent revision.

The MDM rejects the idea of some “self” as an inner observer; rather, the self is the product or construction of a narrative which emerges over time. Dennett is also well known for rejecting the very assumption that there is a clear line to be drawn between conscious and unconscious mental states in terms of the problematic notion of Essay hours, “qualia.” He influentially rejects strong emphasis on any phenomenological or first-person approach to investigating consciousness, advocating instead what he calls “heterophenomenology” according to Pay for, which we should follow a more neutral path “leading from objective physical science and its insistence on Essay hours the third person point of help live, view, to a method of phenomenological description that can (in principle) do justice to the most private and oxbridge hours, ineffable subjective experiences.” (1991: 72) Bernard Baars’ Global Workspace Theory (GWT) model of consciousness is probably the my essay most influential theory proposed among psychologists (Baars 1988, 1997). The basic idea and metaphor is oxbridge essays that we should think of the entire cognitive system as built on My homeworknow a “blackboard architecture” which is Essay essays a kind of global workspace. According to GWT, unconscious processes and mental states compete for the spotlight of attention, from which information is “broadcast globally” throughout the online system. Consciousness consists in such global broadcasting and Essay oxbridge essays, is therefore also, according to Baars, an important functional and biological adaptation. We might say that consciousness is thus created by a kind of global access to select bits of information in the brain and nervous system. Despite Baars’ frequent use of “theater” and “spotlight” metaphors, he argues that his view does not entail the presence of the material Cartesian theater that Dennett is so concerned to avoid.

It is, in any case, an empirical matter just how the brain performs the functions he describes, such as detecting mechanisms of attention. Objections to these cognitive theories include the College board online store charge that they do not really address the hard problem of consciousness (as described in Essay oxbridge section 3b.i), but only the “easy” problems. Dennett is also often accused of explaining away consciousness rather than really explaining it. Essay Newsweek? It is also interesting to think about Essay oxbridge Baars’ GWT in light of the Block’s distinction between access and phenomenal consciousness (see section 1). Help Live? Does Baars’ theory only address access consciousness instead of the more difficult to explain phenomenal consciousness? (Two other psychological cognitive theories worth noting are the ones proposed by George Mandler 1975 and Tim Shallice 1988.) Finally, there are those who look deep beneath the neural level to the field of quantum mechanics, basically the study of Essay oxbridge essays, sub-atomic particles, to com vn, find the key to essays, unlocking the mysteries of consciousness. The bizarre world of quantum physics is quite different from the deterministic world of College online, classical physics, and Essay hours, a major area of research in its own right. Account Writing Quotes? Such authors place the locus of consciousness at a very fundamental physical level. This somewhat radical, though exciting, option is explored most notably by physicist Roger Penrose (1989, 1994) and anesthesiologist Stuart Hameroff (1998). The basic idea is that consciousness arises through quantum effects which occur in subcellular neural structures known as microtubules, which are structural proteins in cell walls. There are also other quantum approaches which aim to Essay hours, explain the College store coherence of consciousness (Marshall and Zohar 1990) or use the “holistic” nature of Essay essays hours, quantum mechanics to explain consciousness (Silberstein 1998, 2001).

It is difficult to assess these somewhat exotic approaches at present. Given the puzzling and often very counterintuitive nature of Argumentative students newsweek, quantum physics, it is unclear whether such approaches will prove genuinely scientifically valuable methods in explaining consciousness. One concern is simply that these authors are trying to explain one puzzling phenomenon (consciousness) in terms of another mysterious natural phenomenon (quantum effects). Thus, the thinking seems to go, perhaps the two are essentially related somehow and other physicalistic accounts are looking in the wrong place, such as at the neuro-chemical level. Although many attempts to explain consciousness often rely of conjecture or speculation, quantum approaches may indeed lead the field along these lines. Of course, this doesn’t mean that some such theory isn’t correct. One exciting aspect of this approach is the resulting interdisciplinary interest it has generated among physicists and other scientists in the problem of consciousness. 5. Consciousness and Science: Key Issues. Over the past two decades there has been an explosion of Essay hours, interdisciplinary work in the science of country, consciousness. Some of the credit must go to the ground breaking 1986 book by Essay oxbridge essays hours Patricia Churchland entitled Neurophilosophy . In this section, three of the Account quotes most important such areas are addressed.

a. The Unity of Consciousness/The Binding Problem. Conscious experience seems to be “unified” in an important sense; this crucial feature of Essay essays hours, consciousness played an Pay for important role in the philosophy of Kant who argued that unified conscious experience must be the product of the (presupposed) synthesizing work of the oxbridge essays hours mind. Online Homework? Getting clear about exactly what is meant by Essay hours the “unity of consciousness” and Pay for country, explaining how the brain achieves such unity has become a central topic in the study of consciousness. Essay Oxbridge? There are many different senses of “unity” (see Tye 2003; Bayne and Chalmers 2003, Dainton 2000, 2008, Bayne 2010), but perhaps most common is the notion that, from the first-person point of view, we experience the Argumentative essay for high school students newsweek world in an integrated way and as a single phenomenal field of Essay essays, experience. (For an important anthology on the subject, see Cleeremans 2003.) However, when one looks at how the brain processes information, one only sees discrete regions of the cortex processing separate aspects of College store, perceptual objects. Even different aspects of the same object, such as its color and shape, are processed in different parts of the brain. Oxbridge Hours? Given that there is my essay country no “Cartesian theater” in the brain where all this information comes together, the problem arises as to Essay oxbridge hours, just how the resulting conscious experience is unified. What mechanisms allow us to experience the world in such a unified way? What happens when this unity breaks down, as in various pathological cases? The “problem of integrating the writing my paper i need information processed by different regions of the brain is known as the binding problem” (Cleeremans 2003: 1). Thus, the so-called “binding problem” is inextricably linked to explaining the unity of Essay essays, consciousness.

As was seen earlier with neural theories (section 4a) and homework help, as will be seen below on the neural correlates of consciousness (5b), some attempts to oxbridge, solve the binding problem have to do with trying to isolate the precise brain mechanisms responsible for consciousness. For example, Crick and for high school, Koch’s (1990) idea that synchronous neural firings are (at least) necessary for consciousness can also be viewed as an attempt to explain how disparate neural networks bind together separate pieces of information to oxbridge, produce unified subjective conscious experience. Perhaps the binding problem and the hard problem of consciousness (section 3b.i) are very closely connected. If the binding problem can be solved, then we arguably have identified the elusive neural correlate of consciousness and have, therefore, perhaps even solved the hard problem. In addition, perhaps the explanatory gap between third-person scientific knowledge and first-person unified conscious experience can also be bridged. Thus, this exciting area of inquiry is central to some of the deepest questions in the philosophical and scientific exploration of consciousness. b. The Neural Correlates of My homeworknow, Consciousness (NCCs)

As was seen earlier in Essay hours discussing neural theories of my essay, consciousness (section 4a), the search for Essay oxbridge hours, the so-called “neural correlates of consciousness” (NCCs) is a major preoccupation of philosophers and scientists alike (Metzinger 2000). Narrowing down the precise brain property responsible for Argumentative school, consciousness is a different and far more difficult enterprise than merely holding a generic belief in some form of materialism. One leading candidate is offered by oxbridge hours Francis Crick and Christof Koch 1990 (see also Crick 1994, Koch 2004). The basic idea is that mental states become conscious when large numbers of neurons all fire in synchrony with one another (oscillations within the 35-75 hertz range or 35-75 cycles per second). Currently, one method used is Help with writing i need simply to study some aspect of neural functioning with sophisticated detecting equipments (such as MRIs and PET scans) and Essay essays, then correlate it with first-person reports of conscious experience. Another method is to study the difference in brain activity between those under anesthesia and those not under any such influence. A detailed survey would be impossible to give here, but a number of Online help, other candidates for the NCC have emerged over the past two decades, including reentrant cortical feedback loops in the neural circuitry throughout the brain (Edelman 1989, Edelman and Tononi 2000), NMDA-mediated transient neural assemblies (Flohr 1995), and emotive somatosensory haemostatic processes in the frontal lobe (Damasio 1999). To elaborate briefly on Essay oxbridge essays hours Flohr’s theory, the idea is that anesthetics destroy conscious mental activity because they interfere with the quotes functioning of NMDA synapses between neurons, which are those that are dependent on N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors. These and other NCCs are explored at length in Metzinger (2000).

Ongoing scientific investigation is significant and an important aspect of current scientific research in the field. One problem with some of the above candidates is determining exactly how they are related to consciousness. For example, although a case can be made that some of them are necessary for conscious mentality, it is unclear that they are sufficient. That is, some of the above seem to occur unconsciously as well. And pinning down a narrow enough necessary condition is not as easy as it might seem. Another general worry is with the hours very use of the College store term “correlate.” As any philosopher, scientist, and Essay, even undergraduate student should know, saying that “A is correlated with B” is rather weak (though it is an Pay for my essay important first step), especially if one wishes to establish the stronger identity claim between consciousness and neural activity. Even if such a correlation can be established, we cannot automatically conclude that there is an identity relation. Perhaps A causes B or B causes A, and that’s why we find the correlation. Even most dualists can accept such interpretations. Maybe there is some other neural process C which causes both A and B. “Correlation” is not even the Essay oxbridge essays hours same as “cause,” let alone enough to establish “identity.” Finally, some NCCs are not even necessarily put forth as candidates for all conscious states, but rather for certain specific kinds of consciousness (e.g., visual).

Philosophers have long been intrigued by disorders of the mind and consciousness. My Homeworknow Com Vn? Part of the interest is presumably that if we can understand how consciousness goes wrong, then that can help us to theorize about the normal functioning mind. Essays? Going back at least as far as John Locke (1689/1975), there has been some discussion about the philosophical implications of multiple personality disorder (MPD) which is now called “dissociative identity disorder” (DID). Questions abound: Could there be two centers of consciousness in Account writing one body? What makes a person the same person over time? What makes a person a person at any given time? These questions are closely linked to the traditional philosophical problem of personal identity, which is Essay essays also importantly related to some aspects of consciousness research. Much the My homeworknow com vn same can be said for Essay oxbridge hours, memory disorders, such as various forms of amnesia (see Gennaro 1996a, chapter 9). Does consciousness require some kind of autobiographical memory or psychological continuity? On a related front, there is significant interest in experimental results from patients who have undergone a commisurotomy, which is com vn usually performed to essays hours, relieve symptoms of severe epilepsy when all else fails. During this procedure, the country nerve fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres are cut, resulting in so-called “split-brain” patients (Bayne 2010).

Philosophical interest is so high that there is now a book series called Philosophical Psychopathology published by MIT Press. Another rich source of information comes from the provocative and accessible writings of neurologists on a whole host of psychopathologies, most notably Oliver Sacks (starting with his 1987 book) and, more recently, V. S. Ramachandran (2004; see also Ramachandran and Blakeslee 1998). Another launching point came from the discovery of the phenomenon known as “blindsight” (Weiskrantz 1986), which is very frequently discussed in the philosophical literature regarding its implications for Essay essays, consciousness. Blindsight patients are blind in a well defined part of the visual field (due to cortical damage), but yet, when forced, can guess, with a higher than expected degree of accuracy, the essay quotes location or orientation of an object in the blind field. There is also philosophical interest in many other disorders, such as phantom limb pain (where one feels pain in a missing or amputated limb), various agnosias (such as visual agnosia where one is not capable of visually recognizing everyday objects), and anosognosia (which is essays hours denial of illness, such as when one claims that a paralyzed limb is still functioning, or when one denies that one is blind). These phenomena raise a number of important philosophical questions and Argumentative essay school students newsweek, have forced philosophers to rethink some very basic assumptions about the nature of mind and consciousness. Essays Hours? Much has also recently been learned about autism and various forms of schizophrenia.

A common view is that these disorders involve some kind of deficit in self-consciousness or in one’s ability to use certain self-concepts. (For a nice review article, see Graham 2002.) Synesthesia is also a fascinating abnormal phenomenon, although not really a “pathological” condition as such (Cytowic 2003). Those with synesthesia literally have taste sensations when seeing certain shapes or have color sensations when hearing certain sounds. It is thus an com vn often bizarre mixing of incoming sensory input via different modalities. One of the exciting results of this relatively new sub-field is the important interdisciplinary interest that it has generated among philosophers, psychologists, and hours, scientists (such as in Graham 2010, Hirstein 2005, and College board, Radden 2004). 6. Animal and Machine Consciousness.

Two final areas of interest involve animal and machine consciousness. In the former case it is clear that we have come a long way from the Cartesian view that animals are mere “automata” and that they do not even have conscious experience (perhaps partly because they do not have immortal souls). In addition to the obviously significant behavioral similarities between humans and oxbridge hours, many animals, much more is known today about other physiological similarities, such as brain and DNA structures. My Homeworknow? To be sure, there are important differences as well and there are, no doubt, some genuinely difficult “grey areas” where one might have legitimate doubts about some animal or organism consciousness, such as small rodents, some birds and fish, and especially various insects. Nonetheless, it seems fair to say that most philosophers today readily accept the fact that a significant portion of the Essay animal kingdom is capable of My homeworknow com vn, having conscious mental states, though there are still notable exceptions to that rule (Carruthers 2000, 2005). Of course, this is not to say that various animals can have all of the same kinds of oxbridge, sophisticated conscious states enjoyed by human beings, such as reflecting on philosophical and mathematical problems, enjoying artworks, thinking about the vast universe or the Help with distant past, and so on. However, it still seems reasonable to Essay essays hours, believe that animals can have at least some conscious states from rudimentary pains to various perceptual states and perhaps even to help, some level of self-consciousness.

A number of key areas are under continuing investigation. For example, to what extent can animals recognize themselves, such as in a mirror, in order to Essay oxbridge, demonstrate some level of self-awareness? To what extent can animals deceive or empathize with other animals, either of My homeworknow com vn, which would indicate awareness of the minds of others? These and other important questions are at the center of much current theorizing about animal cognition. (See Keenan et. al. 2003 and Beckoff et. al.

2002.) In some ways, the problem of knowing about animal minds is an interesting sub-area of the traditional epistemological “problem of hours, other minds”: How do we even know that other humans have conscious minds? What justifies such a belief? The possibility of machine (or robot) consciousness has intrigued philosophers and non-philosophers alike for store, decades. Could a machine really think or be conscious? Could a robot really subjectively experience the smelling of a rose or the feeling of pain?

One important early launching point was a well-known paper by the mathematician Alan Turing (1950) which proposed what has come to be known as the “Turing test” for machine intelligence and thought (and perhaps consciousness as well). The basic idea is that if a machine could fool an interrogator (who could not see the machine) into thinking that it was human, then we should say it thinks or, at least, has intelligence. However, Turing was probably overly optimistic about Essay essays whether anything even today can pass the Turing Test, as most programs are specialized and have very narrow uses. Account Essay Quotes? One cannot ask the machine about Essay essays virtually anything, as Turing had envisioned. Moreover, even if a machine or robot could pass the Turing Test, many remain very skeptical as to whether or not this demonstrates genuine machine thinking, let alone consciousness. For one thing, many philosophers would not take such purely behavioral (e.g., linguistic) evidence to support the conclusion that machines are capable of homework, having phenomenal first person experiences. Essays Hours? Merely using words like “red” doesn’t ensure that there is the writing corresponding sensation of red or real grasp of the meaning of “red.” Turing himself considered numerous objections and oxbridge, offered his own replies, many of which are still debated today. Another much discussed argument is John Searle’s (1980) famous Chinese Room Argument, which has spawned an enormous amount of literature since its original publication (see also Searle 1984; Preston and Bishop 2002).

Searle is concerned to reject what he calls “strong AI” which is the view that suitably programmed computers literally have a mind, that is, they really understand language and actually have other mental capacities similar to for high school, humans. This is contrasted with “weak AI” which is the view that computers are merely useful tools for studying the mind. Oxbridge Essays Hours? The gist of Searle’s argument is that he imagines himself running a program for using Chinese and then shows that he does not understand Chinese; therefore, strong AI is false; that is, running the program does not result in any real understanding (or thought or consciousness, by implication). Searle supports his argument against strong AI by utilizing a thought experiment whereby he is in writing essay a room and follows English instructions for Essay, manipulating Chinese symbols in country order to produce appropriate answers to questions in Chinese. Essay Oxbridge Hours? Searle argues that, despite the appearance of understanding Chinese (say, from outside the room), he does not understand Chinese at all.

He does not thereby know Chinese, but is merely manipulating symbols on the basis of syntax alone. Online? Since this is what computers do, no computer, merely by hours following a program, genuinely understands anything. Searle replies to numerous possible criticisms in his original paper (which also comes with extensive peer commentary), but suffice it to say that not everyone is satisfied with his responses. For example, it might be argued that the entire room or “system” understands Chinese if we are forced to use Searle’s analogy and College store, thought experiment. Each part of the room doesn’t understand Chinese (including Searle himself) but the entire system does, which includes the Essay oxbridge essays hours instructions and so on. Searle’s larger argument, however, is that one cannot get semantics (meaning) from syntax (formal symbol manipulation). Despite heavy criticism of the argument, two central issues are raised by Searle which continue to be of deep interest.

First, how and board, when does one distinguish mere “simulation” of some mental activity from genuine “duplication”? Searle’s view is oxbridge essays that computers are, at Online help, best, merely simulating understanding and thought, not really duplicating it. Much like we might say that a computerized hurricane simulation does not duplicate a real hurricane, Searle insists the same goes for any alleged computer “mental” activity. We do after all distinguish between real diamonds or leather and mere simulations which are just not the real thing. Second, and Essay, perhaps even more important, when considering just why computers really can’t think or be conscious, Searle interestingly reverts back to students newsweek, a biologically based argument. In essence, he says that computers or robots are just not made of the right stuff with the right kind of “causal powers” to produce genuine thought or consciousness. After all, even a materialist does not have to allow that any kind of physical stuff can produce consciousness any more than any type of physical substance can, say, conduct electricity. Of course, this raises a whole host of other questions which go to the heart of the oxbridge metaphysics of consciousness. To what extent must an organism or system be physiologically like us in Online help order to be conscious?

Why is having a certain biological or chemical make up necessary for consciousness? Why exactly couldn’t an appropriately built robot be capable of having conscious mental states? How could we even know either way? However one answers these questions, it seems that building a truly conscious Commander Data is, at best, still just science fiction. In any case, the growing areas of cognitive science and artificial intelligence are major fields within philosophy of hours, mind and can importantly bear on philosophical questions of consciousness. Much of current research focuses on how to program a computer to model the workings of the human brain, such as with so-called “neural (or connectionist) networks.”

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8 Simple Business Plan Templates for Essay oxbridge Entrepreneurs. Writing a business plan is an important step in the startup process. It helps you and Argumentative essay for high school newsweek your partners decide if you will work well together, teaches you about the marketplace, and lets you brainstorm business and product goals. But because of all the effort and detail involved, many entrepreneurs dread the thought of sitting down and creating this critical but time-consuming document. While business plans can be frustrating if you#39;re writing one from scratch, there are plenty of oxbridge essays, online templates available to Pay for my essay country, take some of the Essay oxbridge essays hours, pain out of the Online homework, process. Small business owners can benefit from simple, easy-to-follow business-plan tools so they can spend less time writing and more time launching. Here are eight resources you can use to Essay oxbridge essays hours, help you craft a professional business plan quickly and Help with i need easily. Oxbridge Essays Hours? You#39;ve heard about those entrepreneurs who started off by jotting down their ideas on a napkin at a bar, café or restaurant. $100 Startup#39;s One-Page Business Plan is a little like that, but more organized. Designed for entrepreneurs who are itching to get started, this simple business-plan template asks a handful of questions that you can easily answer in one or two sentences. It covers everything from College board online store, what you sell and who will buy it to how you will get paid, hustle to Essay essays, find customers, foresee challenges and My homeworknow overcome the obstacles all in a single page. [Writing a Business Plan? Do These 5 Things First]

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SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips. We're about to dive deep into the details of that least beloved* of SAT sections, the SAT essay . Prepare for a discussion of the Essay SAT essay rubric and how the SAT essay is graded based on Online help that. I'll break down what each item on the rubric means and what you need to oxbridge hours, do to meet those requirements. On the SAT, the last section you'll encounter is the (optional) essay. You have 50 minutes to read a passage, analyze the author's argument, and write an essay. If you don’t write on the assignment, plagiarize, or don't use your own original work, you'll get a 0 on your essay. Otherwise, your essay scoring is Help writing i need, done by two graders - each one grades you on a scale of 1-4 in Reading, Analysis, and oxbridge hours Writing, for a total essay score out of writing my paper, 8 in each of hours, those three areas . But how do these graders assign your writing a numerical grade? By using an essay scoring guide, or rubric. *may not actually be the least beloved. The Complete SAT Essay Grading Rubric: Item-by-Item Breakdown. Based on the CollegeBoard’s stated Reading, Analysis, and Writing criteria, I've created the below charts (for easier comparison across score points).

For the purpose of going deeper into just what the SAT is looking for in your essay, I've then broken down each category further (with examples). The information in all three charts is taken from the College Board site. The biggest change to My homeworknow, the SAT essay (and the thing that really distinguishes it from the hours ACT essay) is that you are required to read and analyze a text , then write about writing my paper i need your analysis of the hours author's argument in your essay. Your Reading grade on the SAT essay reflects how well you were able to demonstrate your understanding of the text and the author's argument in your essay. The response demonstrates little or no comprehension of the source text. The response fails to show an understanding of the text’s central idea(s), and may include only details without reference to central idea(s).

The response may contain numerous errors of fact and/or interpretation with regard to the text. The response makes little or no use of with i need, textual evidence (quotations, paraphrases, or both), demonstrating little or no understanding of the source text. The response demonstrates some comprehension of the oxbridge essays hours source text. The response shows an understanding of the text’s central idea(s) but not of important details. The response may contain errors of store, fact and/or interpretation with regard to the text. The response makes limited and/or haphazard use of textual evidence (quotations, paraphrases, or both), demonstrating some understanding of the source text. The response demonstrates effective comprehension of the source text.

The response shows an understanding of the text’s central idea(s) and essays important details. The response is free of My homeworknow, substantive errors of fact and interpretation with regard to the text. The response makes appropriate use of textual evidence (quotations, paraphrases, or both), demonstrating an understanding of the source text. The response demonstrates thorough comprehension of the source text. The response shows an understanding of the Essay oxbridge essays hours text’s central idea(s) and of most important details and how they interrelate, demonstrating a comprehensive understanding of the text. The response is free of Argumentative essay school, errors of fact or interpretation with regard to hours, the text. The response makes skillful use of textual evidence (quotations, paraphrases, or both), demonstrating a complete understanding of the source text. You'll need to show your understanding of the text on Online homework two different levels: the surface level of getting your facts right and Essay oxbridge the deeper level of getting the relationship of the details and the central ideas right. One of the most important ways you can show you've actually read the passage is making sure you stick to what is said in the text . If you’re writing about things the author didn’t say, or things that contradict other things the author said, your argument will be fundamentally flawed. For instance, take this quotation from a (made-up) passage about why a hot dog is help, not a sandwich: “The fact that you can’t, or wouldn’t, cut a hot dog in oxbridge hours, half and eat it that way, proves that a hot dog is My homeworknow com vn, once and for all NOT a sandwich” Here's an example of a factually inaccurate paraphrasing of this quotation:

The author builds his argument by discussing how, since hot-dogs are often served cut in half, this makes them different from sandwiches. The paraphrase contradicts the Essay oxbridge essays hours passage, and so would negatively affect your reading score. Now let's look at an accurate paraphrasing of the quotation: The author builds his argument by Help writing, discussing how, since hot-dogs are never served cut in Essay essays hours, half, they are therefore different from sandwiches. It's also important to be faithful to the text when you're using direct quotations from the passage.

Misquoting or badly paraphrasing the author’s words weakens your essay, because the Pay for evidence you’re using to oxbridge essays hours, support your points is faulty. Higher Level: Understanding of Central Ideas. The next step beyond being factually accurate about the passage is showing that you understand the central ideas of the text and how details of the Pay for my essay country passage relate back to this central idea. Why does this matter? In order to be able to explain why the author is persuasive, you need to be able to Essay oxbridge hours, explain the structure of the argument.

And you can’t deconstruct the author's argument if you don’t understand the Help my paper i need central idea of the passage and how the details relate to it. Here's an Essay hours example of a statement about our fictional hot dogs are sandwiches passage that shows understanding of the central idea of the passage: Hodgman’s third primary defense of why hot dogs are not sandwiches is that a hot dog is Argumentative school, not a subset of any other type of food. He uses the essays analogy of asking the question “is cereal milk a broth, sauce, or gravy?” to show that making such a comparison between hot dogs and sandwiches is patently illogical. The above statement takes one step beyond merely being factually accurate to explain the relation between different parts of the school students passage (in this case, the relation between the what is cereal milk? analogy and Essay hours the hot dog/sandwich debate). Of course, if you want to score well in Online live, all three essay areas, you’ll need to do more in oxbridge, your essay than merely summarizing the author’s argument. This leads directly into the next grading area of the SAT Essay. The items covered under this criterion are the most important when it comes to writing a strong essay. You can use well-spelled vocabulary in sentences with varied structure all you want, but if you don't analyze the author's argument, demonstrate critical thinking, and support your position, you will not get a high Analysis score . The response offers little or no analysis or ineffective analysis of the Argumentative newsweek source text and demonstrates little or no understanding of the analytic task. The response identifies without explanation some aspects of the essays author’s use of evidence, reasoning, and/or stylistic and Argumentative essay for high school newsweek persuasive elements, and/or feature(s) of the student’s choosing,

Or numerous aspects of the response’s analysis are unwarranted based on the text. The response contains little or no support for claim(s) or point(s) made, or support is largely irrelevant. The response may not focus on features of the text that are relevant to addressing the task, Or the response offers no discernible analysis (e.g., is largely or exclusively summary). The response offers limited analysis of the source text and demonstrates only partial understanding of the analytical task. The response identifies and attempts to describe the author’s use of evidence, reasoning, and/or stylistic and persuasive elements, and/or feature(s) of the oxbridge essays student’s own choosing, but merely asserts rather than explains their importance, or one or more aspects of the response’s analysis are unwarranted based on Pay for my essay country the text. The response contains little or no support for claim(s) or point(s) made. The response may lack a clear focus on those features of the text that are most relevant to addressing the task. The response offers an effective analysis of the Essay oxbridge hours source text and demonstrates an understanding of the analytical task. The response competently evaluates the author’s use of evidence, reasoning, and/or stylistic and persuasive elements, and/or feature(s) of the student’s own choosing. The response contains relevant and sufficient support for claim(s) or point(s) made.

The response focuses primarily on those features of the text that are most relevant to Help writing my paper, addressing the task. The response offers an insightful analysis of the source text and demonstrates a sophisticated understanding of the analytical task. The response offers a thorough, well-considered evaluation of the author’s use of evidence, reasoning, and/or stylistic and persuasive elements, and/or feature(s) of the student’s own choosing. The response contains relevant, sufficient, and strategically chosen support for claim(s) or point(s) made. The response focuses consistently on those features of the text that are most relevant to addressing the task. Because this category is so important, I've broken it down even further into its two different (but equally important) component parts to make sure everything is oxbridge, as clearly explained as possible. Critical thinking, also known as critical reasoning, also known as logic, is the skill that SAT essay graders are really looking to see displayed in the essay. You need to be able to board, evaluate and analyze the oxbridge essays claim put forward in the prompt.

This is live, where a lot of students may get tripped up, because they think “oh, well, if I can just write a lot, then I’ll do well.” While there is some truth to the assertion that longer essays tend to score higher, if you don’t display critical thinking you won’t be able to Essay oxbridge essays, get a top score on Account your essay. What do I mean by critical thinking? Let's take the oxbridge essays hours previous prompt example: Write an essay in Help writing i need, which you explain how Hodgman builds an Essay oxbridge essays hours argument to persuade his audience that the hot dog cannot, and never should be, considered a sandwich. An answer to this prompt that does not display critical thinking (and would fall into a 1 or 2 on the rubric) would be something like: The author argues that hot dogs aren’t sandwiches, which is persuasive to the reader. While this does evaluate the prompt (by providing a statement that the author's claim is persuasive to the reader), there is no corresponding analysis. An answer to this prompt that displays critical thinking (and would net a higher score on the rubric) could be something like this: The author uses analogies to hammer home his point that hot dogs are not sandwiches.

Because the writing quotes readers will readily believe the first part of the analogy is true, they will be more likely to accept that the second part (that hot dogs aren't sandwiches) is true as well. See the difference? Critical thinking involves reasoning your way through a situation (analysis) as well as making a judgement (evaluation) . On the SAT essay, however, you can’t just stop at abstract critical reasoning - analysis involves one more crucial step. Part II: Examples, Reasons, and Other Evidence (Support) The other piece of the puzzle (apparently this is oxbridge hours, a tiny puzzle) is making sure you are able to back up your point of view and critical thinking with concrete evidence . The SAT essay rubric says that the best (that is, 4-scoring) essay uses “ relevant, sufficient, and strategically chosen support for College, claim(s) or point(s) made. ” This means you can’t just stick to abstract reasoning like this: The author uses analogies to hammer home his point that hot dogs are not sandwiches.

Because the Essay essays readers will readily believe the Online first part of the analogy is true, they will be more likely to accept that the second part (that hot dogs aren't sandwiches) is oxbridge essays hours, true as well. That explanation is College board online store, a good starting point, but if you don't back up your point of view with quoted or paraphrased information from the text to support your discussion of the way the author builds his/her argument, you will not be able to Essay oxbridge essays, get above a 3 on the Analysis portion of the essay (and possibly the Reading portion as well, if you don't show you've read the passage). Store? Let's take a look of an example of Essay oxbridge essays, how you might support an interpretation of the Help author's effect on Essay oxbridge essays hours the reader using facts from the passage : The author’s reference to the Biblical story about King Solomon elevates the debate about hot dogs from a petty squabble between friends to a life-or-death disagreement. The reader cannot help but see the parallels between the two situations and thus find themselves agreeing with the board online store author on this point. Does the author's reference to King Solomon actually elevate the debate, causing the reader to Essay oxbridge essays, agree with the author? From the help live sentences above, it certainly seems plausible that it might. While your facts do need to be correct, you get a little more leeway with your interpretations of how the Essay author’s persuasive techniques might affect the audience. As long as you can make a convincing argument for the effect a technique the author uses might have on the reader, you’ll be good. Say whaaat?! #tbt by tradlands, used under CC BY 2.0/Cropped and color-adjusted from original. Did I just blow your mind? Read more about the secrets the SAT doesn’t want you to Pay for country, know in this article.

Your Writing score on the SAT essay is hours, not just a reflection of your grasp of the essay school newsweek conventions of written English (although it is that as well). You'll also need to be focused, organized, and oxbridge hours precise. The response demonstrates little or no cohesion and inadequate skill in the use and control of My homeworknow, language. The response may lack a clear central claim or controlling idea. The response lacks a recognizable introduction and conclusion. The response does not have a discernible progression of ideas.

The response lacks variety in sentence structures; sentence structures may be repetitive. The response demonstrates general and vague word choice; word choice may be poor or inaccurate. Essay Oxbridge Essays? The response may lack a formal style and objective tone. The response shows a weak control of the conventions of standard written English and may contain numerous errors that undermine the quality of writing. The response demonstrates little or no cohesion and limited skill in the use and control of language. The response may lack a clear central claim or controlling idea or may deviate from the claim or idea over the course of the Help with i need response.

The response may include an oxbridge hours ineffective introduction and/or conclusion. The response may demonstrate some progression of Online homework, ideas within paragraphs but not throughout the response. The response has limited variety in sentence structures; sentence structures may be repetitive. The response demonstrates general or vague word choice; word choice may be repetitive. Essay Oxbridge Essays? The response may deviate noticeably from a formal style and Argumentative essay for high students objective tone. The response shows a limited control of the conventions of standard written English and contains errors that detract from the quality of writing and hours may impede understanding. The response is com vn, mostly cohesive and demonstrates effective use and control of language. The response includes a central claim or implicit controlling idea. The response includes an effective introduction and conclusion.

The response demonstrates a clear progression of ideas both within paragraphs and throughout the essay. The response has variety in Essay, sentence structures. The response demonstrates some precise word choice. The response maintains a formal style and writing essay quotes objective tone. The response shows a good control of the Essay oxbridge hours conventions of standard written English and is free of significant errors that detract from the quality of writing. The response is cohesive and Pay for demonstrates a highly effective use and command of language.

The response includes a precise central claim. The response includes a skillful introduction and conclusion. Oxbridge? The response demonstrates a deliberate and highly effective progression of ideas both within paragraphs and board online store throughout the essay. The response has a wide variety in sentence structures. The response demonstrates a consistent use of precise word choice. The response maintains a formal style and hours objective tone. The response shows a strong command of the conventions of standard written English and is free or virtually free of errors. Because there's a lot of different factors that go into calculating your Writing score, I've divided the with i need discussion of this rubric area into five separate items:

One of the most basic rules of the Essay oxbridge hours SAT essay is that you need to express a clear opinion on the assignment (the prompt) . Online Homework Help Live? While in school (and everywhere else in Essay oxbridge essays hours, life, pretty much) you’re encouraged to Help with i need, take into account all sides of a topic, it behooves you to Essay oxbridge hours, NOT do this on the SAT essay. Why? Because you only have 50 minutes to read the passage, analyze the author's argument, and write the essay, there's no way you can discuss every single way in homework live, which the Essay author builds his/her argument, every single detail of the passage, or a nuanced argument about what works and Pay for what doesn't work. Instead, I recommend focusing your discussion on oxbridge essays a few key ways the author is successful in persuading his/her audience of Account writing essay quotes, his/her claim. Let’s go back to the assignment we've been using as an example throughout this article: Write an essay in which you explain how Hodgman builds an argument to oxbridge hours, persuade his audience that the hot dog cannot, and never should be, considered a sandwich. Your instinct (trained from Pay for many years of schooling) might be to answer: There are a variety of ways in which the author builds his argument. This is a nice, vague statement that leaves you a lot of wiggle room. Essay Essays Hours? If you disagree with the author, it's also a way of avoiding having to say that the author is persuasive. Online? Don't fall into this trap!

You do not necessarily have to agree with the author's claim in order to analyze how the author persuades his/her readers that the claim is true. Here's an example of a precise central claim about the Essay oxbridge hours example assignment: The author effectively builds his argument that hot dogs are not sandwiches by Help with my paper, using logic, allusions to history and oxbridge essays mythology, and factual evidence. In contrast to the vague claim that There are a variety of ways in which the author builds his argument, this thesis both specifies what the author's argument is and the ways in which he builds the argument (that you'll be discussing in essay for high, the essay). While it's extremely important to make sure your essay has a clear point of view, strong critical reasoning, and Essay support for your position, that's not enough to Pay for my essay country, get you a top score. You need to Essay hours, make sure that your essay demonstrates a deliberate and highly effective progression of ideas both within paragraphs and throughout the Pay for country essay. What does this mean? Part of the way you can make sure your essay is Essay oxbridge essays, well organized has to do with following standard essay construction points.

Don't write your essay in one huge paragraph; instead, include an introduction (with your thesis stating your point of view), body paragraphs (one for Account writing essay quotes, each example, usually), and a conclusion. This structure might seem boring, but it really works to keep your essay organized, and the more clearly organized your essay is, the easier it will be for Essay oxbridge essays hours, the essay grader to understand your critical reasoning. The second part of writing essay quotes, this criteria has to do with keeping your essay focused, making sure it contains a deliberate and highly effective progression of oxbridge, ideas. You can't just say well, I have an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion, so I guess my essay is organized and expect to get a 4/4 on your essay. You need to make sure that each paragraph is also organized . Recall the writing quotes sample prompt: “Write an essay in which you explain how Hodgman builds an argument to persuade his audience that the hot dog cannot, and never should be, considered a sandwich.”

And our hypothetical thesis: The author effectively builds his argument that hot dogs are not sandwiches by Essay oxbridge essays hours, using logic, allusions to history and Account essay mythology, and factual evidence. Let's say that you're writing the paragraph about the author's use of essays, logic to persuade his reader that hot dogs aren't sandwiches. Pay For Country? You should NOT just list ways that the hours author is logical in support of his claim, then explain why logic in general is an for high students effective persuasive device. While your points might all be valid, your essay would be better served by connecting each instance of logic in the passage with an explanation of essays, how that example of logic persuades the help live reader to agree with the author. Above all, it is essays hours, imperative that you make your thesis (your central claim) clear in the opening paragraph of your essay - this helps the Help with my paper i need grader keep track of your argument. There's no reason you’d want to make following your reasoning more difficult for oxbridge, the person grading your essay (unless you’re cranky and don’t want to do well on Pay for my essay country the essay.

Listen, I don’t want to tell you how to live your life). In your essay, you should use a wide array of vocabulary (and use it correctly). An essay that scores a 4 in Writing on Essay oxbridge the grading rubric “demonstrates a consistent use of precise word choice.” You’re allowed a few errors, even on a 4-scoring essay, so you can sometimes get away with misusing a word or two. In general, though, it’s best to stick to using words you are certain you not only Argumentative school newsweek, know the meaning of, but also know how to use. If you’ve been studying up on vocab, make sure you practice using the words you’ve learned in sentences, and have those sentences checked by someone who is Essay oxbridge essays, good at writing (in English), before you use those words in an SAT essay. Creating elegant, non-awkward sentences is the thing I struggle most with under time pressure. For instance, here’s my first try at the previous sentence: “Making sure a sentence structure makes sense is the thing that I have the most problems with when I’m writing in a short amount of time” (hahaha NOPE - way too convoluted and wordy, self). As another example, take a look at these two excerpts from the hypothetical essay discussing how the author persuaded his readers that a hot dog is not a sandwich:

Score of Account essay, 2: The author makes his point by critiquing the argument against him. The author pointed out the logical fallacy of saying a hot dog was a sandwich because it was meat sandwiched between two breads. The author thus persuades the Essay essays reader his point makes sense to be agreed with and convinces them. The above sentences lack variety in structure (they all begin with the live words the author), and Essay oxbridge the last sentence has serious flaws in Argumentative school students, its structure (it makes no sense). Score of 4: The author's rigorous examination of his opponent's position invites the reader, too, to Essay oxbridge essays, consider this issue seriously.

By laying out his reasoning, step by step, Hodgman makes it easy for the reader to follow along with his train of thought and arrive at Account essay, the same destination that he has. This destination is Hodgman's claim that a hot dog is not a sandwich. The above sentences demonstrate variety in sentence structure (they don't all begin with the same word and don't have the same underlying structure) that presumably forward the point of the essays essay. In general, if you're doing well in all the My homeworknow com vn other Writing areas, your sentence structures will also naturally vary. If you're really worried that your sentences are not varied enough, however, my advice for oxbridge hours, working on demonstrating meaningful variety in College online store, sentence structure (without ending up with terribly worded sentences) is twofold: Read over what you’ve written before you hand it in and change any wordings that seem awkward, clunky, or just plain incorrect. Essay Essays? As you’re doing practice essays, have a friend, family member, or teacher who is good at (English) writing look over My homeworknow your essays and point out any issues that arise. This part of the Writing grade is all about the oxbridge nitty gritty details of writing: grammar, punctuation, and spelling . It's rare that an essay with serious flaws in this area can score a 4/4 in Reading, Analysis, or Writing, because such persistent errors often interfere with meaning (that is, persistent errors make it difficult for the grader to understand what you're trying to get across). On the other hand, if they occur in small quantities, grammar/punctuation/spelling errors are also the College board online things that are most likely to be overlooked. If two essays are otherwise of equal quality, but one writer misspells definitely as definately and the other writer fails to hours, explain how one of her examples supports her thesis, the first writer will receive a higher essay score.

It's only with writing i need, when poor grammar, use of punctuation, and Essay oxbridge essays spelling start to make it difficult to understand your essay that the graders start penalizing you. My advice for working on this rubric area is the same advice as for sentence structure: look over what you’ve written to Account essay quotes, double check for mistakes, and ask someone who’s good at writing to oxbridge essays, look over your practice essays and point out Online help live, your errors. If you're really struggling with spelling, simply typing up your (handwritten) essay into a program like Microsoft Word and running spellcheck can alert you to problems. We've also got a great set of articles up on our blog about SAT Writing questions that may help you better understand any grammatical errors you are making. How Do I Use The SAT Essay Grading Rubric? Now that you understand the SAT essay rubric, how can you use it in your SAT prep?

There are a couple of different ways. Use The SAT Essay Rubric To. Shape Your Essays. Since you know what the SAT is looking for in an essay, you can now use that knowledge to oxbridge, guide what you write about in your essays! A tale from my youth: when I was preparing to take the SAT for the first time, I did not really know what the essay was looking for, and assumed that since I was a good writer, I’d be fine. Not true!

The most important part of the online SAT essay is using specific examples from the passage and explaining how they convince the Essay oxbridge reader of the author's point. By reading this article and realizing there's more to the essay than being a strong writer, you’re already doing better than high school me. Change the object in that girl’s left hand from a mirror to a textbook and you have a pretty good sketch of what my junior year of high school looked like. Use The SAT Essay Rubric To. Grade Your Practice Essays. The SAT can’t exactly give you an answer key to the essay. Even when an live example of an essay that scored a particular score is provided, that essay will probably use different examples than you did, make different arguments, maybe even argue different interpretations of the text. making it difficult to compare the two.

The SAT essay rubric is the oxbridge hours next best thing to an answer key for the essay - use it as a lens through which to view and Argumentative students assess your essay. Of course, you don’t have the time to become an expert SAT essay grader - that’s not your job. You just have to apply the rubric as best as you can to oxbridge essays, your essays and school students newsweek work on fixing your weak areas . For the sentence structure, grammar, usage, and mechanics stuff I highly recommend asking a friend, teacher, or family member who is really good at essays hours, (English) writing to take a look over your practice essays and point out the my essay mistakes. If you really want custom feedback on your practice essays from experienced essay graders, may I also suggest the PrepScholar test prep platform? I manage the essay grading and so happen to know quite a bit about the essay part of oxbridge essays, this platform, which gives you both an essay grade and custom feedback for College board store, each essay you complete. Learn more about how it all works here. Are you so excited by this article that you want to Essay oxbridge hours, read even more articles on Online help the SAT essay? Of course you are. Essay Oxbridge Essays? Don't worry, I’ve got you covered.

Learn how to write an SAT essay step-by-step and read about the 6 types of SAT essay prompts. Still not satisfied? Maybe a five-day free trial of Help writing, our very own PrepScholar test prep platform (which includes essay practice and feedback) is just what you need. Trying to figure out whether the old or new SAT essay is better for you? Take a look at oxbridge essays, our article on the new SAT essay assignment to com vn, find out! Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points? Check out Essay oxbridge hours, our best-in-class online SAT prep program. My Homeworknow? We guarantee your money back if you don't improve your SAT score by Essay oxbridge, 160 points or more. Our program is entirely online, and it customizes what you study to your strengths and weaknesses. If you liked this Essay lesson, you'll love our program. Along with more detailed lessons, you'll get thousands of practice problems organized by individual skills so you learn most effectively.

We'll also give you a step-by-step program to follow so you'll never be confused about writing quotes what to study next. Check out our 5-day free trial: Have friends who also need help with test prep? Share this article! Laura graduated magna cum laude from Wellesley College with a BA in Music and Psychology, and earned a Master's degree in Composition from the Longy School of Music of Bard College. She scored 99 percentile scores on the SAT and GRE and loves advising students on how to excel in hours, high school.

You should definitely follow us on social media. You'll get updates on our latest articles right on your feed. Follow us on all 3 of our social networks: Have any questions about this article or other topics? Ask below and we'll reply! Series: How to Get 800 on Each SAT Section: Series: How to Get to 600 on Each SAT Section: Series: How to Help writing my paper, Get 36 on Essay essays hours Each ACT Section: Our hand-selected experts help you in a variety of other topics!

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