English essay papers pdf

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Richard Feynman and The Connection Machine. by W. Daniel Hillis for Physics Today. Reprinted with permission from Phys. Essay Papers Pdf? Today 42(2), 78 (1989). Copyright 1989, American Institute of Physics. Photo by Faustin Bray.

One day when I was having lunch with Richard Feynman, I mentioned to Writing essay teach you how him that I was planning to English pdf start a company to build a parallel computer with a million processors. His reaction was unequivocal, That is positively the dopiest idea I ever heard. For Richard a crazy idea was an opportunity to customer essay representative either prove it wrong or prove it right. Either way, he was interested. By the end of lunch he had agreed to spend the summer working at the company. Richard's interest in computing went back to his days at Los Alamos, where he supervised the computers, that is, the people who operated the English essay papers, mechanical calculators. There he was instrumental in Doctoral dissertation committee, setting up some of the essay papers, first plug-programmable tabulating machines for physical simulation. His interest in the field was heightened in the late 1970's when his son, Carl, began studying computers at MIT. I got to know Richard through his son. I was a graduate student at the MIT Artificial Intelligence Lab and Carl was one of the undergraduates helping me with my thesis project.

I was trying to design a computer fast enough to solve common sense reasoning problems. The machine, as we envisioned it, would contain a million tiny computers, all connected by a communications network. We called it a Connection Machine. Richard, always interested in his son's activities, followed the project closely. He was skeptical about the idea, but whenever we met at a conference or I visited CalTech, we would stay up until the early hours of the morning discussing details of the planned machine. The first time he ever seemed to believe that we were really going to try to Delimitation in a dissertation proposal build it was the lunchtime meeting. Richard arrived in Boston the English essay papers, day after the company was incorporated.

We had been busy raising the money, finding a place to Doctoral rent, issuing stock, etc. We set up in an old mansion just outside of the city, and when Richard showed up we were still recovering from the shock of having the first few million dollars in the bank. No one had thought about anything technical for several months. We were arguing about what the name of the company should be when Richard walked in, saluted, and said, Richard Feynman reporting for duty. OK, boss, what's my assignment? The assembled group of not-quite-graduated MIT students was astounded. After a hurried private discussion (I don't know, you hired him. ), we informed Richard that his assignment would be to English essay pdf advise on the application of parallel processing to scientific problems.

That sounds like a bunch of baloney, he said. Give me something real to Writing do. So we sent him out to English essay papers pdf buy some office supplies. While he was gone, we decided that the part of the service, machine that we were most worried about English pdf, was the router that delivered messages from one processor to another. And Efficiently? We were not sure that our design was going to work. When Richard returned from buying pencils, we gave him the assignment of analyzing the router. During those first few months, Richard began studying the English, router circuit diagrams as if they were objects of nature. He was willing to listen to explanations of how and why things worked, but fundamentally he preferred to figure out everything himself by simulating the action of each of the circuits with pencil and reading committee, paper.

In the meantime, the rest of us, happy to have found something to keep Richard occupied, went about the business of ordering the furniture and English pdf, computers, hiring the first engineers, and writing portfolio, arranging for the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) to pay for the development of the first prototype. Richard did a remarkable job of focusing on his assignment, stopping only English pdf, occasionally to Doctoral dissertation form help wire the computer room, set up the machine shop, shake hands with the investors, install the telephones, and cheerfully remind us of how crazy we all were. When we finally picked the name of the company, Thinking Machines Corporation, Richard was delighted. That's good. Now I don't have to explain to people that I work with a bunch of loonies. I can just tell them the name of the company. The technical side of the project was definitely stretching our capacities.

We had decided to simplify things by English papers pdf starting with only 64,000 processors, but even then the amount of work to do was overwhelming. We had to Doctoral dissertation committee design our own silicon integrated circuits, with processors and a router. We also had to invent packaging and cooling mechanisms, write compilers and assemblers, devise ways of testing processors simultaneously, and so on. Even simple problems like wiring the English, boards together took on a whole new meaning when working with tens of thousands of processors. In retrospect, if we had had any understanding of how complicated the project was going to be, we never would have started. I had never managed a large group before and Primary homework help hinduism, I was clearly in English essay, over my head. Richard volunteered to homework help hinduism help out. We've got to get these guys organized, he told me. Let me tell you how we did it at Los Alamos. Every great man that I have known has had a certain time and place in their life that they use as a reference point; a time when things worked as they were supposed to and great things were accomplished. For Richard, that time was at Los Alamos during the Manhattan Project.

Whenever things got cockeyed, Richard would look back and try to understand how now was different than then. Using this approach, Richard decided we should pick an expert in each area of importance in the machine, such as software or packaging or electronics, to become the group leader in this area, analogous to the group leaders at Los Alamos. Part Two of essay papers pdf, Feynman's Let's Get Organized campaign was that we should begin a regular seminar series of invited speakers who might have interesting things to do with our machine. Richard's idea was that we should concentrate on reading, people with new applications, because they would be less conservative about English essay papers, what kind of computer they would use. For our first seminar he invited John Hopfield, a friend of his from CalTech, to give us a talk on his scheme for building neural networks.

In 1983, studying neural networks was about as fashionable as studying ESP, so some people considered John Hopfield a little bit crazy. Richard was certain he would fit right in at Thinking Machines Corporation. What Hopfield had invented was a way of constructing an [associative memory], a device for remembering patterns. To use an essay will, associative memory, one trains it on a series of patterns, such as pictures of the letters of the alphabet. Later, when the memory is shown a new pattern it is able to recall a similar pattern that it has seen in the past. A new picture of the essay papers, letter A will remind the memory of another A that it has seen previously. Hopfield had figured out customer service essay, how such a memory could be built from devices that were similar to biological neurons. Not only did Hopfield's method seem to work, but it seemed to work well on the Connection Machine. Feynman figured out the details of how to use one processor to simulate each of Hopfield's neurons, with the strength of the connections represented as numbers in the processors' memory.

Because of the parallel nature of Hopfield's algorithm, all of the papers pdf, processors could be used concurrently with 100% efficiency, so the Connection Machine would be hundreds of times faster than any conventional computer. Feynman worked out the Delimitation in a proposal, program for computing Hopfield's network on the Connection Machine in essay pdf, some detail. The part that he was proudest of was the subroutine for computing logarithms. I mention it here not only because it is a clever algorithm, but also because it is a specific contribution Richard made to the mainstream of computer science. He invented it at Los Alamos. Concentrating on the algorithm for homework, a basic arithmetic operation was typical of Richard's approach. He loved the details.

In studying the router, he paid attention to the action of each individual gate and in writing a program he insisted on English papers, understanding the implementation of every instruction. He distrusted abstractions that could not be directly related to the facts. Primary Help? When several years later I wrote a general interest article on the Connection Machine for [Scientific American], he was disappointed that it left out too many details. He asked, How is anyone supposed to know that this isn't just a bunch of English papers pdf, crap? Feynman's insistence on looking at doctoral the details helped us discover the potential of the machine for numerical computing and physical simulation. We had convinced ourselves at the time that the Connection Machine would not be efficient at number-crunching, because the first prototype had no special hardware for vectors or floating point arithmetic. Both of these were known to be requirements for essay pdf, number-crunching.

Feynman decided to Primary hinduism test this assumption on English essay papers, a problem that he was familiar with in How to fast, detail: quantum chromodynamics. Quantum chromodynamics is a theory of the internal workings of papers pdf, atomic particles such as protons. Using this theory it is Writing a research essay will teach, possible, in principle, to essay pdf compute the values of measurable physical quantities, such as a proton's mass. Reading Form? In practice, such a computation requires so much arithmetic that it could keep the fastest computers in English essay pdf, the world busy for years. One way to do this calculation is to use a discrete four-dimensional lattice to model a section of space-time.

Finding the solution involves adding up the service essay representative, contributions of all of the possible configurations of certain matrices on the links of the lattice, or at least some large representative sample. (This is essentially a Feynman path integral.) The thing that makes this so difficult is that calculating the contribution of even a single configuration involves multiplying the matrices around every little loop in the lattice, and the number of English papers, loops grows as the How to finish homework and efficiently qnap, fourth power of the essay, lattice size. Good Customer Service? Since all of these multiplications can take place concurrently, there is essay, plenty of opportunity to How to homework fast keep all 64,000 processors busy. To find out how well this would work in practice, Feynman had to write a computer program for QCD. Since the pdf, only computer language Richard was really familiar with was Basic, he made up a parallel version of Basic in which he wrote the program and then simulated it by finish fast hand to estimate how fast it would run on English pdf, the Connection Machine. He was excited by the results. Homework Fast? Hey Danny, you're not going to believe this, but that machine of yours can actually do something [useful]! According to English essay papers pdf Feynman's calculations, the fast and efficiently, Connection Machine, even without any special hardware for floating point arithmetic, would outperform a machine that CalTech was building for doing QCD calculations. From that point on, Richard pushed us more and more toward looking at numerical applications of the machine.

By the end of that summer of 1983, Richard had completed his analysis of the behavior of the router, and English, much to our surprise and amusement, he presented his answer in the form of a set of partial differential equations. To a physicist this may seem natural, but to a computer designer, treating a set of boolean circuits as a continuous, differentiable system is a bit strange. Feynman's router equations were in terms of variables representing continuous quantities such as the average number of 1 bits in a message address. Writing A Research Essay Will Teach? I was much more accustomed to seeing analysis in terms of inductive proof and case analysis than taking the derivative of the number of English pdf, 1's with respect to Doctoral form time. Our discrete analysis said we needed seven buffers per chip; Feynman's equations suggested that we only pdf, needed five.

We decided to play it safe and ignore Feynman. The decision to ignore Feynman's analysis was made in September, but by next spring we were up against a wall. The chips that we had designed were slightly too big to customer essay manufacture and the only way to solve the problem was to cut the number of buffers per chip back to five. Essay Pdf? Since Feynman's equations claimed we could do this safely, his unconventional methods of teach you how, analysis started looking better and better to English essay us. We decided to go ahead and make the chips with the smaller number of buffers. Fortunately, he was right.

When we put together the chips the machine worked. The first program run on the machine in April of 1985 was Conway's game of Life. The game of Life is an committee, example of a class of computations that interested Feynman called [cellular automata]. Like many physicists who had spent their lives going to successively lower and lower levels of essay papers, atomic detail, Feynman often wondered what was at the bottom. One possible answer was a cellular automaton. The notion is Primary homework religion hinduism, that the continuum might, at its lowest levels, be discrete in both space and time, and that the laws of physics might simply be a macro-consequence of the average behavior of essay papers, tiny cells. Each cell could be a simple automaton that obeys a small set of rules and communicates only with its nearest neighbors, like the lattice calculation for Good customer essay, QCD. If the universe in fact worked this way, then it presumably would have testable consequences, such as an English essay papers, upper limit on help religion hinduism, the density of information per cubic meter of space.

The notion of English papers pdf, cellular automata goes back to von Neumann and finish fast qnap, Ulam, whom Feynman had known at Los Alamos. Richard's recent interest in the subject was motivated by essay his friends Ed Fredkin and Stephen Wolfram, both of committee form, whom were fascinated by papers cellular automata models of physics. Feynman was always quick to point out to them that he considered their specific models kooky, but like the Connection Machine, he considered the subject sufficiently crazy to put some energy into. There are many potential problems with cellular automata as a model of physical space and time; for example, finding a set of rules that obeys special relativity. One of the simplest problems is just making the physics so that things look the same in High school portfolio, every direction. The most obvious pattern of English essay, cellular automata, such as a fixed three-dimensional grid, have preferred directions along the axes of the grid. Is it possible to customer service implement even Newtonian physics on English essay papers, a fixed lattice of automata? Feynman had a proposed solution to the anisotropy problem which he attempted (without success) to work out in detail. His notion was that the underlying automata, rather than being connected in a regular lattice like a grid or a pattern of hexagons, might be randomly connected. Waves propagating through this medium would, on the average, propagate at the same rate in every direction.

Cellular automata started getting attention at Thinking Machines when Stephen Wolfram, who was also spending time at the company, suggested that we should use such automata not as a model of physics, but as a practical method of simulating physical systems. Specifically, we could use one processor to simulate each cell and rules that were chosen to model something useful, like fluid dynamics. Finish Fast? For two-dimensional problems there was a neat solution to the anisotropy problem since [Frisch, Hasslacher, Pomeau] had shown that a hexagonal lattice with a simple set of rules produced isotropic behavior at the macro scale. Wolfram used this method on English essay pdf, the Connection Machine to produce a beautiful movie of a turbulent fluid flow in two dimensions. How To Finish Homework Fast And Efficiently? Watching the movie got all of us, especially Feynman, excited about physical simulation. We all started planning additions to the hardware, such as support of English, floating point arithmetic that would make it possible for High school portfolio assignment, us to perform and display a variety of simulations in real time. In the meantime, we were having a lot of English essay papers pdf, trouble explaining to people what we were doing with cellular automata. Eyes tended to glaze over when we started talking about state transition diagrams and finite state machines.

Finally Feynman told us to explain it like this, We have noticed in in a dissertation proposal, nature that the behavior of English, a fluid depends very little on dissertation committee, the nature of the individual particles in that fluid. For example, the flow of sand is very similar to pdf the flow of dissertation reading committee, water or the flow of a pile of English essay pdf, ball bearings. We have therefore taken advantage of How to finish homework and efficiently qnap, this fact to invent a type of imaginary particle that is especially simple for us to simulate. This particle is a perfect ball bearing that can move at a single speed in English, one of six directions.

The flow of these particles on a large enough scale is very similar to the flow of natural fluids. This was a typical Richard Feynman explanation. Reading Form? On the essay papers pdf, one hand, it infuriated the experts who had worked on the problem because it neglected to Primary help religion hinduism even mention all of the clever problems that they had solved. On the other hand, it delighted the listeners since they could walk away from English pdf, it with a real understanding of the phenomenon and how it was connected to physical reality. We tried to finish fast take advantage of Richard's talent for clarity by getting him to critique the technical presentations that we made in our product introductions. Before the commercial announcement of the Connection Machine CM-1 and all of our future products, Richard would give a sentence-by-sentence critique of the planned presentation. Don't say `reflected acoustic wave.' Say [echo]. English Pdf? Or, Forget all that `local minima' stuff. Writing A Research You How? Just say there's a bubble caught in pdf, the crystal and you have to shake it out. Nothing made him angrier than making something simple sound complicated.

Getting Richard to give advice like that was sometimes tricky. How To Finish Fast And Efficiently? He pretended not to like working on any problem that was outside his claimed area of expertise. Often, at Thinking Machines when he was asked for advice he would gruffly refuse with That's not my department. I could never figure out just what his department was, but it did not matter anyway, since he spent most of his time working on those not-my-department problems. Sometimes he really would give up, but more often than not he would come back a few days after his refusal and remark, I've been thinking about what you asked the other day and it seems to papers pdf me. This worked best if you were careful not to expect it. I do not mean to imply that Richard was hesitant to do the dirty work.

In fact, he was always volunteering for it. Many a visitor at Thinking Machines was shocked to see that we had a Nobel Laureate soldering circuit boards or painting walls. But what Richard hated, or at least pretended to hate, was being asked to give advice. How To Finish And Efficiently? So why were people always asking him for papers, it? Because even when Richard didn't understand, he always seemed to understand better than the rest of us. And whatever he understood, he could make others understand as well. Richard made people feel like a child does, when a grown-up first treats him as an adult.

He was never afraid of telling the truth, and however foolish your question was, he never made you feel like a fool. The charming side of Richard helped people forgive him for Doctoral reading committee form, his uncharming characteristics. For example, in many ways Richard was a sexist. English Essay? Whenever it came time for his daily bowl of soup he would look around for the nearest girl and ask if she would fetch it to him. It did not matter if she was the cook, an in a proposal, engineer, or the essay papers pdf, president of the company. I once asked a female engineer who had just been a victim of Writing a research will teach, this if it bothered her. Yes, it really annoys me, she said.

On the other hand, he is the only one who ever explained quantum mechanics to papers me as if I could understand it. That was the Primary help religion hinduism, essence of Richard's charm. Richard worked at the company on and off for the next five years. Floating point hardware was eventually added to the machine, and as the machine and its successors went into commercial production, they were being used more and more for the kind of English papers, numerical simulation problems that Richard had pioneered with his QCD program. School Portfolio Assignment? Richard's interest shifted from the construction of the machine to papers its applications. Service? As it turned out, building a big computer is a good excuse to talk to people who are working on some of the most exciting problems in science. Papers? We started working with physicists, astronomers, geologists, biologists, chemists --- everyone of them trying to school solve some problem that it had never been possible to solve before. Essay Pdf? Figuring out how to do these calculations on a parallel machine requires understanding of the details of the application, which was exactly the kind of thing that Richard loved to do. For Richard, figuring out these problems was a kind of a game. He always started by High asking very basic questions like, What is the simplest example? or How can you tell if the answer is right? He asked questions until he reduced the problem to some essential puzzle that he thought he would be able to solve.

Then he would set to English pdf work, scribbling on a pad of paper and staring at Doctoral dissertation reading the results. While he was in the middle of this kind of puzzle solving he was impossible to interrupt. Don't bug me. I'm busy, he would say without even looking up. Eventually he would either decide the pdf, problem was too hard (in which case he lost interest), or he would find a solution (in which case he spent the Delimitation doctoral proposal, next day or two explaining it to anyone who listened). In this way he worked on problems in database searches, geophysical modeling, protein folding, analyzing images, and reading insurance forms. The last project that I worked on with Richard was in simulated evolution. I had written a program that simulated the evolution of populations of sexually reproducing creatures over hundreds of thousands of generations.

The results were surprising in that the fitness of the population made progress in sudden leaps rather than by the expected steady improvement. The fossil record shows some evidence that real biological evolution might also exhibit such punctuated equilibrium, so Richard and English essay, I decided to look more closely at why it happened. He was feeling ill by that time, so I went out and spent the week with him in doctoral dissertation proposal, Pasadena, and we worked out English essay, a model of evolution of finite populations based on the Fokker Planck equations. When I got back to essay Boston I went to the library and discovered a book by English essay pdf Kimura on the subject, and much to my disappointment, all of our discoveries were covered in the first few pages. When I called back and dissertation reading, told Richard what I had found, he was elated. Hey, we got it right! he said.

Not bad for amateurs. In retrospect I realize that in almost everything that we worked on together, we were both amateurs. Essay? In digital physics, neural networks, even parallel computing, we never really knew what we were doing. But the things that we studied were so new that no one else knew exactly what they were doing either. It was amateurs who made the progress. Actually, I doubt that it was progress that most interested Richard. He was always searching for patterns, for connections, for Writing teach, a new way of looking at something, but I suspect his motivation was not so much to understand the English essay papers, world as it was to find new ideas to explain. The act of discovery was not complete for in a doctoral proposal, him until he had taught it to someone else. I remember a conversation we had a year or so before his death, walking in the hills above Pasadena. Papers Pdf? We were exploring an writing portfolio, unfamiliar trail and English essay, Richard, recovering from a major operation for the cancer, was walking more slowly than usual.

He was telling a long and funny story about how he had been reading up on his disease and surprising his doctors by predicting their diagnosis and his chances of survival. I was hearing for the first time how far his cancer had progressed, so the How to fast, jokes did not seem so funny. English Papers? He must have noticed my mood, because he suddenly stopped the story and asked, Hey, what's the matter? I hesitated. I'm sad because you're going to die. Yeah, he sighed, that bugs me sometimes too.

But not so much as you think. And after a few more steps, When you get as old as I am, you start to realize that you've told most of the customer representative, good stuff you know to English essay other people anyway. We walked along in silence for a few minutes. Then we came to a place where another trail crossed and Richard stopped to look around at the surroundings. Suddenly a grin lit up his face. Hey, he said, all trace of sadness forgotten, I bet I can show you a better way home. Visit the Front Page or Subscribe to our Blog. The Long Now Foundation was established in 01996* to foster long-term thinking and responsibility in a research essay will teach you how, the framework of the next 10,000 years. More » The Long Now Foundation • Fostering Long-term Responsibility • est.

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13 Kick-Ass Tips For Writing Fantasy From Professional Fantasy Editors. Has there ever been a better time to be writing fantasy? Where once it was a fringe genre, now fantasy is everywhere in pop culture, from Harry Potter to the memes surrounding Jon Snow. There’s also never been a more exciting time to essay pdf, write fantasy. The genre is How to homework fast and efficiently qnap changing daily, as authors such as Neil Gaiman, Susanna Clarke, and Patrick Rothfuss continue to interpret, subvert, and pdf stretch it to attain new pinnacles. What’s more, the public can't seem to homework help religion, get enough of it, proving that there is a market for fantasy — and it’s a big one. So, if you’re an author, where can you find a place for papers, yourself in today’s talent-rich terrain? In our search for the finest writing tips in the realm, we spoke to seven of the High school writing portfolio assignment top fantasy editors on our marketplace. They’ve worked with George R.R. Martin, James Dashner, Brandon Sanderson, and papers many more of the brilliant authors who are re-defining the genre. Here’s what they said.

If you don’t know your market, you’ve already made a mistake, says Erin Young, an agent for Dystel Goderich Bourret, which represents authors such as James Dashner of Maze Runner fame. Doctoral Dissertation Reading Committee! “Oh, my market is fantasy,” you might say, waving your monthly subscription of English essay, Imagination And Me . But is your story steampunk, urban, or dark fantasy? Are there elves or tech? Is it set in the modern world, or is it a re-imagining of an customer essay, alternate past? Jonathan Strange and Mr. Norrell , for instance, doesn’t target Discworld ’s readers, and no-one would instinctively group Harry Potter and papers pdf Stephen King's The Dark Tower in How to finish fast qnap the same category.

Indeed, “fantasy” is such a broad genre that you’ll need to dig deeper to essay pdf, find your niche — but it’s important as your subgenre not only informs your characters and setting, it also allows you to identify your competition and audience. As Young says: “If your characters are younger, you should be writing YA or MG, not adult.” To get a better picture of the various subgenres within fantasy, check out school portfolio assignment this guide. 2. Develop your world through short stories. Did you know that JRR Tolkien wrote a gazillion short stories about English essay papers pdf Middle-Earth before ever starting The Hobbit ? He needed somewhere to begin. That’s exactly what Jenny Bowman, an editor who worked on Robert Beatty’s Serafina and the Black Cloak , advises: a good way to build your world is to committee, write short stories that feature some of English papers, your characters. “Do this with the a research essay intention of excluding [these stories] from essay papers pdf your book,” she says. “This gives you freedom to create a new universe with no boundaries.” So if you can’t churn out the full-blown novel inside of you just yet, don’t sweat it. Dip your toe into the water through short stories, instead. 3. Plot out your story before you begin. Stories in the fantasy genre are often complex and epic — all the more reason to plot it out before. Primary Religion Hinduism! You don’t want to accidentally trip over all 99 of your storylines. Papers Pdf! And you don’t want to essay you how, be that writer who gets to the end of the book and realizes they’ve forgotten to tie a knot in one part of the plot.

Hello, darkness, my old friend. That's why Young says to get a general sense of your plot before you start writing. “You’ll know your world so much better if you know your story first,” she says. “Then, once your story is plotted out, you can use the essay papers pdf plot structure as a skeleton to show where you want to build your world, scene by scene.” For more food for plotting thought, you can read up on narrative arcs here. 4. Tie your worldbuilding into your plot. Plot and How to finish qnap worldbuilding should see eye-to-eye. Essay Papers Pdf! “You want to be original, so ask yourself, what sets my world apart?” says Alex Foster, a ghostwriter who’s penned eight bestsellers. Importantly, a rich universe can be a major player in your plot — playing as big of a role as any other character. “In A Song of Ice and Doctoral reading committee form Fire , George R. R. Martin uses the environment as a plot point when describing both summer and winter seasons — as winter brings dark, dead things that can wipe out the entire Realm,” says Foster. “He also adds architecture as a plot point in the form of the Wall, a massive ice edifice separating the North and the South. How fascinating that such a massive piece of plot centers around a single wall. Sounds simple, but you can see its complexity.

Stephen King also does an expert job in Under the Dome , when a small town is suddenly cut off from the rest of the world by a giant, transparent dome.” 5. Keep your story relevant through real-world themes. “Your concerns about politics, culture, the environment, technology, violence, racism, misogyny — these issues can be explored in inventive, eye-opening ways while writing fantasy,” says Rebecca Faith Heyman, an editor who worked on Elise Kova’s The Alchemists of Loom . “In this way, we want to essay papers, return to our own existences with new perspectives, new solutions to old problems, or new awareness of what's at Doctoral reading committee stake.” Another way to English essay papers, put it: is Primary help anything, in particular, frustrating you in real life? You can explore it through your story, because the world’s your own. And, who knows, you might be speaking for other people out there in the world who read your book and share your perspectives. “ Carry On by Rainbow Rowell does this brilliantly,” adds Heyman. “There are undercurrents of essay, identity politics explored there, as well as a depth of Primary hinduism, characterization that merges meaningfully with the fantastical elements of the text. The Grisha Trilogy by Leigh Bardugo, as well as the brilliant Six of Crows and Crooked Kingdom , explore racial prejudice, ableism, identity politics, and more.” “What makes worldbuilding tick? Specific, sensory detail,” says Michelle Hope, who’s previously worked with George R.R. Martin and Blake Crouch . English Essay Papers Pdf! “So my advice for fantasy authors is, simply: you can be as inventive and High school magical as you want in your work if the writing is papers pdf detailed enough to customer essay representative, seem authentic.” Take pop culture’s current fantasy darling, Game of English essay papers, Thrones . “Crisp air, hooves clattering on ironwood planks, a warm tongue, women’s perfume, summerwine, soft fur.

The writing's full of these concrete details,” points out Hope. Essay You How! “So when the essay papers author expands the finish homework fast qnap universe to include fantastical elements, we buy it. Dragons? Sure! Face-swapping assassins? Why not? Frozen zombies? Didn’t see that coming, but the author’s sensory style already established the world as believable, so we’re primed to accept anything thrown at us.” That said, abstract cliches don’t count. No-one’s going to be impressed by your description of essay, a man with piercing gray eyes that are the color of a storm. Instead, use the Good service essay senses to make the reader feel like they're there. “When a reader can viscerally inhabit your world, they won’t question it when you introduce the fantastical into your story,” says Hope. English Essay Pdf! “They’ll take your word for it.” To make a world feel real and functional, you also want to make sure that it’s grounded by rules — an internal rationale , so to Good customer service representative, speak.

This should encompass everything from the workings of your society to, yes, your magic system (if your universe possesses magic). Easier said than done, maybe. How to actually go about essay papers pdf it? Chersti Nieveen, a proofreader of Brandon Sanderson’s Mistborn , advises you to read up on the basic and fundamental fields. “Become familiar with the Primary homework religion basics of economics, politics, philosophy, and essay papers pdf more, and you’ll create a believable world of your own,” she says. Don’t know where to start with your magic system? Brandon Sanderson shares useful theories about magic systems referred to Delimitation doctoral dissertation proposal, as Sanderson's 3 Laws of Magic, offering a few approaches through which authors can work through their own. 8. But don’t go breaking your own rules. Papers! That said, these rules aren’t ones that are made just to be broken. “I often see first-time fantasy writers breaking their own rules, and it really takes the reader out of the story,” says Bowman. Let’s say, for a research teach you how, example, you’ve made it clear that using magic is supposed to sap energy. Well, then, don’t make your protagonist go rip magic spells left and right in essay papers the final battle without tiring at all. Help Religion Hinduism! Ultimately, this internal consistency matters much more than realism.

To ensure this consistency, Bowman suggests that you always jot everything down. Papers Pdf! “When do the suns come up?” she asks. “Can only children under the age of 10 fly? When casting a spell, does it transform the object or create an object from nothing? Know the rules of your world (what we call physics!) when you're writing fantasy and don’t break them — unless, of course, it’s on purpose.” 9. Ask questions while worldbuilding. And guess what? Your #1 most powerful weapon when you’re worldbuilding isn’t a sword — nor is in a doctoral dissertation proposal it a pen, or even Daenerys’ fabulous dragons. The most powerful tool in your world building arsenal is, instead… the question. “Where do big cities pop up?” wrote Patrick Rothfuss, author of the Kingkiller Chronicles , once. “At a confluence of trade routes. That’s influenced by rivers. Where do rivers come from?

There’s aquifers and stuff. I ask these questions. English Pdf! I go, ‘Why, why, why, why, why?’” This will make sure that everything is rationally thought-out. “Fantasy works when you can read it like it is real, if that makes sense,” says Kendall Davis, an associate editor at Penguin Random House . Finish Homework Fast Qnap! “You want readers to read the story knowing there are stories and adventures and a world that exists far beyond the story they are currently invested in.” 10. English Papers Pdf! Have the mindset of a cinematographer. Sometimes writers get so caught up in their world that they write block paragraph after block paragraph (after block paragraph) of you how, description. This is English essay a mistake. “Don't tell your reader what your world appears to be,” says Young. “Give them scenery when it relates to the story by getting your characters to interact with their surroundings.” Did we ever get an ultra-wide shot showing the a research essay will whole of Middle Earth in Peter Jackson’s Lord of the Rings trilogy? Absolutely not! That would be boring to essay papers, the viewers, not to mention meaningless. Young observes: “Instead, cinematographers carefully plan each shot to give you a view of where the actors are.

This is exactly the way you should show your world.” 11. Doctoral Dissertation! Interview your characters to know them. Good character creation and English pdf development in a research essay teach you how fantasy is no different from fiction, or any other genre. Essay Papers! Take a minute to finish homework qnap, think of English pdf, your favorite characters of all time. Walter White.

Jon Snow. Hermione Granger. Mr Bean from Love Actually . What do they all share? “The best characters are complex and original,” says Foster. “They possess very real motives and weaknesses, and they change over time due to dissertation form, events and English essay pdf supporting characters in the story. Take your character and interview them. What do they fear most? What are their ultimate goals, and Doctoral reading committee form where are they willing to go to achieve that goal? Do this with all your characters when you're writing fantasy: craft a questionnaire and get your answers from them. Essay Papers Pdf! Your publisher will thank you.” 12. Good Representative! Don’t introduce all your characters all at once.

Ever want a corkboard just to keep the English essay papers pdf characters in a fantasy book straight? The number of characters in many fantasy series are so infinite, it turns out to be a mad scramble to keep track of them all — especially when the reader’s still trying to differentiate between Boldon, the Good customer service representative protagonist, and Bolgon, the shrewish elf from Book 2. So don’t make it even tougher on the reader by dumping all your characters onto page two. It’s one of the most common mistakes that Nieveen sees. “Fantasy writers try to essay pdf, introduce too many characters on How to one page, or there’s an info dump to reveal how the magic system works,” she says. “They make the reader sit and memorize their world or their characters before they actually introduce the story. English Essay Pdf! But you end up dropping readers that way.” You should read good books, says Nieveen, with an emphasis on good . Your writing’s only going to be as great as what you’re feeding it. So read. How To Finish Fast And Efficiently! “You’re absorbing ideas. Essay Pdf! You're absorbing grammar. You're absorbing sentence structure and rhythm and prose,” she says. “Read books with description or dialogue you admire.

Read the books that are classics—they are classics for How to finish homework and efficiently, a reason—and read the books that are bestsellers and read the books that are award winners. Read and read and read, and you'll start to English essay pdf, see your own writing improve.” To take specific action, Nieveen suggests picking the Writing 10 books that you most admire. Then, it's just a matter of re-reading them and noting strengths in their plot, dialogue, characters, and scene structure. Learn from the English essay papers best — and then go forth and tilt the arena again yourself. Did any of these writing tips resonate with you in school writing portfolio assignment particular? Have you got your own tips on writing fantasy or any more questions for our editors? Leave them in the comments.

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Learn the basics of writing great fiction: create compelling characters, build intricate worlds, and fine-tune your pacing and Good service essay representative prose. Recommended posts from the Reedsy Blog. How Blending the Past and Present Allowed Me to Ask: What If? Along with being an author, Finian Black is a doctor who served in the British Army. He lives in Winchester, which is chock-full of English pdf, medieval reminders of the time and proposal story inspiration. Essay! In this article, … A Century of finish homework fast, Fantasy: How the Genre's Changed Since the 1920s. The English word, fantasy, sprang from Old French's phantasie, or vision, imagination. But you wouldn't be entirely remiss if you'd thought that it came from the word, fantastic. When you consider all the English pdf fantastic things in our … How Long Should Your Novel Be? Our Editors Have the Answers.

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Information for Readers and Authors. No registration is essay pdf required and access is free. There is no online submission or registration. Authors wishing to submit a piece of work should review the reading committee, author guidelines and then email submissions to papers pdf, [emailprotected] An Argument for Terrorism. It has become something of a cliche to school writing portfolio, note that there are over 200 definitions of English, terrorism in existence within broader terrorism studies literature; that many terrorism scholars have given up on the definitional debate and use the school writing assignment, term unreflectively; and that such a state of affairs hampers theoretical progress and English, skews terrorism research in unhelpful ways. However, the significance and consequences of the Writing a research essay will teach, definitional debate go far beyond such narrow academic confines, important as they are to the field. English Pdf? Rather, the High school writing portfolio assignment, issue of definition is central to the way in English essay pdf which the Global War on Terror is prosecuted by the authorities both domestically and finish homework fast and efficiently, overseas. Essay Pdf? It also affects the way in which terrorism is Doctoral dissertation reading committee understood and dealt with as a criminal act under international and domestic law. In the academic and cultural realms, the definition of terrorism has important implications for the way knowledge and commonsense about the subject is constructed and reproduced socially. Furthermore, it has substantial indirect consequences for individuals and groups labelled as terrorists – who may then be legally subject to torture, rendition and internment without trial – and for the suspect communities they belong to.

This paper argues that despite a number of serious political and ontological obstacles to the definition of terrorism, it should be possible to agree on a clear set of criteria that can be employed to distinguish and conceptualise terrorism as a unique form of political violence. There are a great many advantages to adopting these definitional criteria. More importantly, there are political-normative imperatives for retaining terrorism as a central organising concept for the field. The paper begins by discussing some of the main challenges in defining terrorism and the kinds of essay papers, knowledge practices this has resulted in to date. High Writing Portfolio Assignment? The second section outlines a set of criteria that analysts can employ to distinguish terrorism from other forms of political violence. The final section of the paper attempts to demonstrate how this approach to terrorism can play a role in strengthening rules and norms against English essay papers illegitimate and oppressive forms of in a dissertation, political violence, whether it is committed by state or non-state actors. The Constitution of Terrorism. I have already noted that the definitional debate in terrorism studies has reached something of essay papers pdf, a stalemate.

Not only is there no agreed definition among scholars, but an Good analysis of 490 articles published in essay papers the leading terrorism studies journals between 1990 and 1999 revealed that only eight, or 1.6 percent of them, could be regarded as conceptually-oriented papers.[2] This suggests that many scholars have largely given up on the challenging theoretical debates surrounding the central concept of the field. An examination of broader terrorism studies literature suggests four main approaches and practices towards the service representative, definition and conceptualisation of terrorism.[3] Arguably the most frequent practice—particularly amongst scholars who are newly arrived to the subject—is to simply use the term without defining it, on the misguided assumption that it is widely understood and accepted. Pdf? Such an High writing assignment approach is problematic for a number of very obvious reasons, not least because terrorism is a highly emotive and essay papers, divisive concept which different scholars and societies have often understood in very different ways. A second approach, confined mainly to political leaders and security officials, but also to a surprising number of researchers and media pundits, is to define terrorism as an customer service representative ideology or movement. Essay Pdf? Although groups specializing solely in terror do sometimes form, they are extremely rare and typically remain highly unstable and ephemeral. There are very few such groups operating today. In reality, most terrorism occurs in the context of wider political struggles in which the use of terror is one strategy among other more routine forms of contentious action.[4] As Charles Tilly puts it, Properly understood, terror is a strategy, not a creed. Terrorists range across a wide spectrum of organizations, circumstances, and beliefs.[5] Third, it is not uncommon to see researchers adopt an actor-based definition in fast qnap the literature, whereby terrorism is defined as a particular form of political violence committed by non-state actors who attack civilians. Bruce Hoffman, for example, argues that terrorism involves violence perpetrated by a subnational group or non-state entity .[6] This is in keeping with the essay, U.S. State Department's highly influential definition of terrorism, which conceives of terrorism as premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetuated against non-combatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience.[7] For scholars who adopt this definition, terrorism is Delimitation largely indistinguishable from insurgency, militancy, guerrilla warfare and the like.

More importantly, inherent to this approach is an assumption that while states may commit atrocities, engage in political repression or torture opponents, this nonetheless does not constitute terrorism, in large part because states have the sovereign right to use force.[8] From this perspective, definitions of English essay papers pdf, terrorism hinge on questions of legitimacy and sovereignty and the nature of the actor who employs the violence. As I will argue below, actor-based approaches to writing portfolio assignment, the definition of terrorism are both analytically untenable and politically suspect. Lastly, and most commonly among the leading scholars in the field, terrorism is defined as a violent strategy or tactic that actors employ in pursuit of particular political goals. That is, terrorism is defined and understood by the nature and characteristics of the act itself, rather than the nature of actor, and is conceived as a particular kind of English pdf, political action directed towards certain strategic goals rather than as a broad ideology or movement. Louise Richardson for example, defines terrorism as politically motivated violence directed against non combatants or symbolic targets which is designed to Good customer service essay, communicate a message to a broader audience.[9] Crucially, such a definitional approach accepts that states are also actors who can and frequently do adopt strategies of terrorism and commit terrorist acts. This is a useful formulation that provides the basis for essay the identifying criteria I present below. Partly due to these definitional approaches, research on terrorism in the broader field has been characterised by Doctoral dissertation committee a number of unfortunate tendencies. An initial tendency widely noted by some critics of the field is the English papers pdf, selection bias of much terrorism research. In this case, the Delimitation in a doctoral dissertation proposal, terrorism label is applied almost solely to non-state groups opposed to Western interests. It is usually not applied to those groups supported by Western states – even when they commit identical acts of essay, civilian-directed violence such as hijackings, bombings, kidnappings and assassinations.[10] Thus, while left-wing groups have always received an inordinate amount of in a proposal, attention in English essay papers terrorism studies literature, right-wing groups like the Contras, anti-Castro groups, US- and South African-supported movements in doctoral dissertation proposal Angola and Mozambique, various Afghan factions, numerous Latin American death squads, and today a number of Iraqi death squads, have remained scandalously understudied.

Although this is in part the result of the definitional practices noted above, it is also the result of an papers understandable but avoidable ideological bias amongst many Western scholars who adopt the interests of their own governments. A more serious issue is that the field has been widely criticised for its failure to provide sustained analysis (and moral condemnation) of state terrorism. Indicative of the Primary, almost exclusive focus on terrorism from below as opposed to terrorism from above is the English pdf, finding that only 12, or less than two percent, of articles from Good service essay representative, 1990 to 1999 in the core terrorism studies journals focused on state terrorism,[ 11] and that only 12 of the 768 pages in the Encyclopaedia of World Terrorism (1997) examined state terrorism in any form.[12] In part, this is due to the not infrequent practice noted above of essay, defining terrorism exclusively as a form of non-state violence. However, there are also many prominent scholars who accept that, objectively, terrorism is homework help religion hinduism a strategy of political violence that any actor can employ, including states, yet simply refuse to examine cases of papers, state terrorism in Primary homework religion their research. English Essay Pdf? Walter Laqueur, arguably one of the founders of terrorism studies, is emblematic of this practice: he openly accepts that states have killed many more people and caused far more material and social destruction than terrorism from below, but then argues that this is simply not the type of terrorism he wishes to examine.[13] It is perfectly understandable that scholars would wish to homework help religion hinduism, focus on particular subjects, but when an papers pdf entire field neglects what is in a doctoral dissertation a very important dimension of the phenomenon, it raises troubling questions about the ideological orientation and essay, political objectivity of the overall field. Clearly, there are reasons for concern over Primary help religion hinduism, this state of affairs. From a political-normative perspective, the field appears biased towards Western state interests and complicit in the terroristic practices Western states have regularly employed over the past two hundred years.[14] The well-documented use of political terror by Western states during the colonial period, the papers pdf, terror bombing during World War II and other conflicts, cold war counter-insurgency and pro-insurgency campaigns, the in a, active sponsorship of right-wing non-state terrorist groups and English papers, the widespread use of torture during certain counter-terrorism campaigns, among others, are only the most prominent examples of the kind of terrorism that many Western states have employed.

The failure to High portfolio assignment, analyse state terrorism or to condemn it in the same morally assured terms as non-state terrorism appears to English papers, many observers as pro-Western bias and a toleration of certain forms of finish and efficiently, state-practiced terrorism.[15] In addition, it represents a breakdown of scholarly procedure and a self-imposed intellectual blindness. It is intellectually unsustainable to argue that states cannot practice terrorism against their own people and against other states. For example, such an approach would argue that a car bomb detonated on a city street by clandestine state agents is essay pdf not an act of terrorism, but an identical attack by non-state actors is. Or that the kidnap, torture and murder of school writing portfolio assignment, a civilian by agents of the pdf, state are not terrorist acts, but the same act by a non-state group is religion terrorism. Accepting that terrorism can only really be described according to the nature and quality of the particular act of violence—rather than the purported legitimacy of the actor who commits it [16]—has a number of serious consequences and implications. In the first place, the essay papers pdf, acceptance that states are not exempted from employing terrorism raises serious questions about the broader focus of the field and the empirical foundations it is based on. Finish Fast And Efficiently Qnap? That is, while non-state terrorists have killed tens of thousands and caused significant damage during the English essay papers pdf, past century and a half, the Doctoral committee form, acceptance that states can be terrorists, too [17] reveals that some individual states have been responsible for more terrorism than all non-state terrorist groups put together.

A conservative estimate of state-instigated mass murder, forcible starvations and genocide against civilians for example, suggests that governments have been responsible for 170-200 millions deaths in the twentieth century alone.[18] Even if only a small proportion of these deaths can be strictly defined as state terrorism, the few hundred deaths caused every year by non-state terrorists pales beside the massive death, destruction and de-stabilisation caused by some states. English Papers Pdf? Moreover, a great many states continue to employ terrorism on a considerable scale against their people today in places like Colombia, Haiti, Algeria, Zimbabwe, Myanmar, Pakistan, Uzbekistan,[19] Egypt, Kashmir, Palestine, Chechnya, Tibet, North Korea, Indonesia, the Philippines and service, elsewhere. And yet, the broader terrorism studies field does not include statistics on state terrorism in any of its recognised databases, nor does it expend any real effort trying to understand the nature, causes, strategies and outcomes of state terrorism.[20] A serious analytical breakdown occurs when an entire field largely fails to examine what is English essay papers arguably the most serious aspect of the Writing a research essay will, subject. It would be comparable to an imaginary situation in which criminologists focused most of their research on English anti-social behaviour and Good customer essay representative, burglaries, and failed to study in any systematic way the extent and causes of domestic violence, rape, murder, sexual abuse or other serious crimes. Another important consequence of accepting state terrorism as terrorism (and not just repression) is the English essay papers pdf, need to re-conceptualise some of the accepted truisms in the field regarding the nature of terrorist behaviour. It is not the case for example, that terrorism is solely the 'weapon of the weak'; it can also be true that the committee, stronger the state, the stronger the temptation to rule through a regime of terror.[21] In fact, an objective look at the history of terrorism would suggest that strong actors have used terror far more frequently than weak ones. Moreover, it is essay papers clear that contrary to popular beliefs, terrorism can be employed during war as well as during peace. For example, when states bomb civilian targets of no military value for the sole purpose of terrorising a population into surrender—a case of frightening one group of people in order to produce a political change in another—they are clearly committing a terrorist act.[22] Similarly, counter-terrorism itself can become terrorism under certain conditions: · When it fails to distinguish between the innocent and the guilty; · When it is highly disproportionate; · When it aims to terrify or intimidate the wider population or a particular community into submission; · When it is co-opted to serve a political agenda.[23] Ultimately, there are important ethical-normative implications for the notion that states employ terrorism too, often under the guise of counter-terrorism. In the current climate, virtually every state and international organisation has adopted new anti-terrorism legislation, and school writing, military force—including strategic bombing—is frequently being used as a tool of counter-terrorism.

At the very least, scholars should be highly suspicious of any and all attempts by states to define terrorism in English essay ways that conveniently absolve what they or their agents do from being considered terrorism. They should refuse to accede to the common practice of exempting state officials from charges of terrorism, if for no other reason than that: There is something morally suspicious, however, about people making laws that apply to everyone else accept [ sic ] themselves. The sheer fact that politicians have entered into a mutual-protection pact not to prosecute one another as 'terrorists' cannot change any logical or deontological facts of the matter. Finish Fast And Efficiently Qnap? If what they do is otherwise indistinguishable from English essay papers, what is done by non-state actors that we would deem to be terroristic, then the acts of the state officials doing the same thing would be morally wrong for just the same reasons.[24] It is not as if there understandable reasons exist for homework fast and efficiently the continuing failure to agree upon papers, a definition of the Delimitation in a dissertation proposal, field's central concept. In the English papers, first place, some of the key concepts at the heart of the definition of terrorism are extremely subjective and difficult to determine objectively. Most definitions of in a proposal, terrorism by leading scholars for example, describe it as a form of illegitimate violence directed towards innocent civilians that is essay papers intended to intimidate or terrify an audience for political purposes. The question of what makes an act of violence legitimate or not, who is considered a civilian, how innocence can be measured, what the real intentions of often clandestine actors might be and what counts as a political aim, are all highly contested and subject to competing claims. As a consequence, in practice it is Good customer service essay representative often the English papers pdf, politically and school writing portfolio assignment, culturally determined legitimacy of the particular group under scrutiny that determines whether its actions are labelled as terrorism and not necessarily the characteristics inherent to the violence itself.

Much more significantly however, terrorism is not a causally coherent, free-standing phenomenon which can be defined in English papers pdf terms of characteristics inherent to the violence itself. Good Service Representative? It lacks a clear ontological status—which actually makes an objective definition impossible. As two leading figures in the field put it, The nature of terrorism is not inherent in the violent act itself. One and the same act… can be terrorist or not, depending on English papers pdf intention and circumstance.[25] The bombing of civilians for example, is not always or inherently a terrorist act; it may be the unintentional consequence of a military operation during war. The reality is that terrorism is a social fact rather than a brute fact. Although acts of violence are experienced as brute facts, the wider cultural-political meaning of those acts as terrorism for example, is service essay representative decided through symbolic labelling, social agreement and a range of inter-subjective practices. That is, as a phenomenon, terrorism is constituted by and through the discursive practices which make it a concrete reality for politicians, law enforcement officials, the media, the English pdf, public, academics and so on.

We can identify a number of processes by which certain acts and individuals are constructed as terrorism and customer representative, terrorists, including: · The labelling of English essay, certain acts and groups as such by authoritative actors, such as the annual State Department reports; · The legal definitions contained within criminal and international law; · The compiling of statistics on Delimitation in a dissertation proposal terrorism by the CIA, RAND, and various academics and think-tanks; · The ascriptions of different groups and acts as terrorist in the media; Actions and actors are constituted and reconstituted as terrorism in a continuous flow of social and political discourse. Moreover, analyses of these discourses reveal significant variation and instabilities between and English essay pdf, within institutions, as well as shifts over time in the way terrorism is High school discursively constructed and English essay papers, delineated.[26] For example, before the late 1960s, there was virtually no terrorism spoken of by politicians, the media or academics; there were instead numerous references to doctoral dissertation, bombings, kidnappings, assassinations, hijackings and so on.[ 27] The current discourse of terrorism used by scholars, politicians and the media is in fact, a very recent invention. Similarly, in the 1980s, the Afghan Mujahidin were described as freedom fighters[28] before they were later reconstructed as Islamic terrorists. Numerous other groups and English essay, states have experienced the same kind of discursive transformation from terrorist or state-sponsor of terrorism to freedom fighter, political leader or ally in the War on Terror.

In an important sense, terrorism does not exist outside of the definitions and practices that seek to enclose it. In the same way that races do not exist objectively as a meaningful way of assigning identities and behavioural characteristics to individuals, but classifications of humankind do, so too terrorism does not exist as a kind of essential marker—even if classifications of different forms of political violence do.[29] A pertinent illustration of the ontological instability of the High writing, terrorism label is the observation that there are no less than four recognised terrorists who have gone on to win the Nobel Peace Prize: Menachim Begin, Sean McBride, Nelson Mandela and Yassir Arafat.[30] In other words, even within the confines of contemporary terrorism discourse, once a terrorist, is not always a terrorist.[31] It depends upon papers pdf, the current political context and the dominant discourses which determine and constitute it. It is for this reason, among others, that some scholars argue that the term should be avoided or eschewed altogether in academic research. These scholars suggest that the appropriate focus of study is not the terrorism that exists out Doctoral form there in reality, but the discourses of terrorism and the discursive practices that construct terrorism as a political and cultural subject.[32] Another set of scholars argue more prosaically that terrorism is English papers pdf a political-cultural label and an act of de-legitimisation, and that no group ever accepts its designation as terrorist. Writing A Research Essay Will Teach? They suggest that as a concept, terrorism has been greatly abused by political interests and has too many negative cultural and pdf, political connotations to retain any real analytical value. Good Customer Service Essay Representative? While these are cogent and challenging arguments, I do not accept that this means we should abandon the attempt to essay pdf, carefully and Writing essay will, consistently determine which acts should be considered terrorist, or that we cannot agree on a set of fairly clear identifying criteria which can be employed for research purposes.

An Argument for Terrorism. It is English essay pdf my argument here that in Doctoral spite of its insecure ontological status, its negative cultural-political baggage and its frequent misuse by political and academic actors, there are a number of important political and essay, normative reasons for retaining the term terrorism as an organising concept for the field. In A Dissertation Proposal? I want to further suggest that the term can serve a useful function within a broader progressive political project to restrict and eliminate the use of English essay papers pdf, certain kinds of illegitimate and oppressive forms of political violence. However, in order to achieve these lofty goals, scholars need to adopt the aims and commitments of a more 'critical' approach to High, terrorism. Politically, there are a number of reasons why we should retain the term terrorism and engage in papers pdf sustained and High portfolio assignment, rigorous discursive struggle over its constitution and knowledge production. Most obviously, the essay, term now has widespread political and cultural currency. It is the organising concept for in a dissertation a vast array of powerful political institutions, processes and essay pdf, practices in contemporary society, and scholars who refuse to employ or engage with it risk marginalising their views and their access to power. The term also clearly retains a great deal of academic currency. There is now a whole field of research, teaching and advocacy surrounding the concept of terrorism, with numerous journals, conferences, teaching programmes, think-tanks, research centres, funding opportunities and advisory posts in existence. To refuse to employ the term or engage in debates about its definition and application in research is again, to risk marginalisation and irrelevance within this broader scholarly context.

Most importantly however, there is a compelling normative imperative to retain a term that de-legitimises particular kinds of violence directed against civilians and which instrumentalises human suffering for the purposes of Good customer representative, influencing an audience.[33] Of course, the normative power of the terrorism label is highly dependent upon English, its consistent application to all qualifying cases, including cases involving Western states or their allies. Homework? The selectivity and bias of terrorism scholars and political leaders in the past has seriously undermined this project by making it appear that the term is reserved solely for enemies of the West. However, I would argue that this provides a reason for critical engagement rather than withdrawal and capitulation in the discursive struggle. Although terrorism can never be adequately defined due to essay papers pdf, its unstable ontological status, I want to argue that it can, and should, be described according to a set of identifiable and unique characteristics, which delineate it from other forms of political violence. Finish Homework Qnap? Furthermore, a review of broader terrorism studies literature would suggest that the following conception of terrorism has broad support from English essay papers, many leading scholars in the field and could form the basis of a consensus over How to finish and efficiently, how to conceptualise it. Such an approach moreover, has several advantages over English essay pdf, most of the existing approaches I outlined above. I suggest that as a form of political violence, terrorism can be described according to four main characteristics.

First, terrorism is an intentional and pre-determined strategy of political violence. This suggests its rational and instrumental basis. It also implies that any actor (states, groups or individuals) can employ it in High writing portfolio pursuit of strategic goals. Essay Papers? More importantly, it implies that actors can abandon its use at any time, and that being a terrorist is not a determinant of future behaviour or an indication of portfolio assignment, some kind of essential evil nature. Terrorists can choose to adopt non-violent strategies instead; they can even become statesmen and peacemakers. English Essay? Importantly, it also implies political motivations, as a way of distinguishing terrorism from other forms of violence designed to terrify, such as the Primary homework help, intimidation of communities by organised criminals seeking to obtain financial reward, the terror caused by a serial killer, or the fear caused by a one-off mass killing. Lastly, it implies forethought and English essay, intentionality, as opposed to the terror induced by rioting or communal disturbances, for Good service essay example. Second, the English essay, targets of terrorist violence are not necessarily the victims of the violence, but rather the Writing a research essay will you how, audiences to the violence. From this perspective, terrorism is a form of essay, political communication rather than direct military action.

An important distinction here is that terrorism instrumentalises its victims. Unlike the actions of soldiers in war who seek to directly degrade the material ability of the enemy to Doctoral committee, continue fighting, the victims of terrorism are chosen instead for English essay papers symbolic reasons. An important point here is that states which try to hide their involvement in civilian-directed violence may still be sending a powerful message to the society or social groups they wish to intimidate. The use of disappearances as a strategy of Primary help, terrorism for example, sends a message that the state is omnipotent, omnipresent and ruthless in rooting out opponents,[34] as does kidnap and essay pdf, torture. In other cases, state terrorism may be both instrumental and direct: killing a union organiser for example, both weakens the union and sends a message to potential union leaders and the society they come from. Third, and related to the previous point, terrorism is intended to cause fear and intimidate. This is the Primary help religion hinduism, central purpose of the violence and not just the unintended consequence, although it can be argued that there is English a certain kind of intentionality when actors engage in actions they can be sure which will cause terror and intimidate, such as using airpower to bomb civilian areas. Moreover, the intention to a research will teach you how, cause fear can usually be deduced from the targets, context and foreseen consequences of the violence.

Bombs in public places or the widespread use of torture against regime opponents for example, are clearly intended to terrify the wider society. Lastly, terrorism is aimed primarily but not solely at civilians. Here I differ with some scholars in that I argue that it is English pdf often unhelpful to try and maintain civilian-military or combatant-non-combatant distinctions in conceptualising terrorism. I agree with Goodin in this regard that such distinctions can in fact, be counter-productive, as they allow actors to claim legitimacy for other forms of equally abhorrent violence.[35] A violent campaign aimed at Good customer police officers or off-duty military personnel that was intended to cause fear and English, intimidate the wider society or a certain section of society for example, would still constitute terrorism even though it avoided targeting civilians. Primary Religion? Similarly, certain actions during war which were aimed solely at terrorising enemy soldiers and their civilian audience, rather than for military-strategic reasons, could also be considered terrorism. The use of certain types of militarily ineffective but demoralising chemical weapons or the bombing of civilian areas in which there were no real strategic targets, for example, would qualify as terrorism. There are a number of essay papers pdf, clear advantages to employing such a conception of terrorism. In the first instance, it does not artificially and illogically limit the Primary help religion, phenomenon by the nature of the actor (as some definitions do), but includes state terrorism, gender-based terrorism,[36] and non-state terrorism. Second, it does not limit the analysis to peace, but also includes the behaviour of actors in essay pdf war—the site of a great deal of concentrated political violence.

Lastly, as mentioned, it can be argued that there is already a consensus on these criteria among the leading terrorism scholars, as their definitions tend to incorporate all these elements. From this perspective, the main issue is not that we do not know what terrorism is or that we cannot clearly identify it; it is rather that the application of the definition is too often restricted—for whatever reason—to a narrow set of actors that most often happens to coincide with the current strategic interests of Western powers. During the cold war, most terrorism research focused on left-wing non-state groups; today, most terrorism research focuses on so-called Islamist terrorism. This inconsistent application both distorts the focus of the Delimitation in a doctoral proposal, field and undermines attempts to restrict and eliminate oppressive forms of political violence. Terrorism and essay papers pdf, Emancipation. In addition to its analytical advantages, the terrorism label could be employed as means to and efficiently qnap, advancing a progressive political project aimed at protecting marginalised and vulnerable populations from indiscriminate and oppressive forms of violence. That is, at the most basic level, employing the above criteria can have the effect of pdf, de-legitimising any and representative, all forms of violence that seek to instrumentalise human suffering for the sole purpose of sending a message to English, an audience. Related to How to finish fast and efficiently qnap, this, it also de-legitimises all forms of essay papers pdf, civilian-directed violence, including the direct targeting of civilians during war. Most importantly, however, this approach to terrorism brings back states as a subject for analysis and holds them accountable for actions that many recognise as terrorism but which are rarely acknowledged as terrorism, even by service essay representative terrorism scholars.

This is a critical task, given that the essay pdf, known effects and consequences of state terrorism —in terms of deaths, human suffering and Primary homework help, material, social and political destruction—are far more serious than non-state terrorism. In this sense, the identifying criteria described above functions to set the limits of legitimate state violence, despite the frequent attempt to English pdf, justify terroristic forms of Primary, violence by reference to doctrines of state sovereignty and English papers, the legitimate use of political violence. The criteria can also be used to scrutinise state practices during counter-terrorism and counter-insurgency operations to ensure that they do not morph into terrorism themselves by failing to distinguish between the innocent and the guilty or being highly disproportionate, for Primary homework religion example. Similarly, it can be used to evaluate state practices during times of war, identifying those occasions when military actions go beyond strategic necessity to the use of force for the purpose of English, intimidating and demoralising civilians. In short, these criteria provide a strict set of criteria for the evaluation of actions by any and How to finish homework fast and efficiently qnap, all actors who are in conflict. As such, they have the English, potential to strengthen the norms relating to the limits of political violence, thereby improving human and social security. Importantly, the broad social and academic consensus, as well as the relevant legal precepts, is already in place for proscribing and de-legitimising actions that fall within the categories of illegitimate, terrorist violence outlined above. However, in High portfolio assignment order to make this work in everyday scholarly practice, I would argue that terrorism scholars in particular would need to adhere to a set of core ontological, methodological and normative commitments. These have been outlined in detail elsewhere,[37] but would include, among others: · An acute sensitivity to the politics of labelling in the terrorism field and an acceptance of the insecure ontological status of the term; · Transparency about their own values and political standpoints, particularly as they relate to English pdf, the geo-political interests of Western states; · A willingness to Good customer service essay representative, expand their focus of research to include the pdf, use of terrorism by states, including Western states engaged in operations overseas; · Adherence to a set of Good service, responsible research ethics, including a commitment to refusing to cooperate with state counter-terrorism projects that include the papers, use of torture, illegal practices such as rendition or the victimising of whole suspect communities; · A commitment to normative values which reject any and all forms of civilian-directed violence and which promotes a broad notion of human security. In particular, terrorism scholars must recognise the cultural-political biases they hold and aim for consistency of application of the criteria set out. Specifically, they must demonstrate a willingness to scrutinise and condemn the actions and intentions of their own states when they cross the Delimitation in a doctoral, line into terrorism.

This is in fact, the biggest problem facing the field in this area. It is not that terrorism scholars do not recognise the use of terrorism by states; it is rather that they limit the focus of their research largely to non-state groups that are opposed to Western interests and fail to acknowledge the long history of pdf, involvement of Writing you how, their own states or allied states in terrorism. In this paper, I have attempted to demonstrate that even though terrorism is impossible to define and the study of terrorism is beset by some unhelpful biases and knowledge practices, it is both possible and necessary to retain the English pdf, term as a focus for research. I have further suggested that as an analytical term, terrorism can potentially also play an a research essay will important normative function. However, in order to realise this potential, terrorism scholars need to acknowledge and accept the ethico-political content of English essay, their subject and commit themselves to a number of transparent principles. The consequences of failing to do so are that the field remains unbalanced, politically biased and highly limited in its focus. More importantly, unless these imbalances are addressed, the field is in danger of reinforcing the view that terrorism is solely a problem of non-state groups and individuals, and school portfolio, that states are immune from condemnation or sustained scholarly analysis. As such, there is a danger that terrorism studies will continue to be seen by English some as simply an arm of the How to, state security sector and a bastion of support for the Global War on Terror.

Considering some of the morally questionable and counter-productive policies at the heart of current state security practices in the global counter-terrorism campaign—such as extraordinary rendition, the widespread use of torture, internment at Guantanamo Bay, pre-emptive war, extra-judicial killing of terrorist suspects, shoot-to-kill policies, intrusive surveillance, aid and support for authoritarian regimes and the like—this should sound a clarion call for English concerted action to scholars in the field. About the Author: Richard Jackson is Reader in How to fast and efficiently International Politics at Aberystwyth University and the Founding Editor of the journal, Critical Studies on Terrorism . He gained his PhD from the University of Canterbury, New Zealand. His current research focuses on the discourses of terrorism and the development of 'critical terrorism studies'. [1] An earlier version of this paper was presented at essay papers pdf the British International Studies Association (BISA) Annual Conference, 17-19 December, 2007, University of Cambridge. [2] Silke, A. (2004) 'The Road Less Travelled: Recent Trends in Terrorism Research', in A. Silke, (ed), Research on Terrorism: Trends, Achievements and Failures . London: Frank Cass, p. 207. [3] For an excellent overview of the main definitional approaches in committee the field, see Raphael, S. (2007) 'Putting the State Back In: The Orthodox Definition of Terrorism and the Critical Need to Address State Terrorism', Paper Prepared for English essay papers British International Studies Association (BISA) Annual Conference, 17-19 December, 2007, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom, available online at: http://www.bisa.ac.uk/2007/tuesday.htm. [4] Tilly, C. (2004) 'Terror, Terrorism, Terrorists', Sociological Theory , vol. 22, no. 1, p. 6; Schmid, A. (2004) 'Frameworks for Conceptualising Terrorism', Terrorism and Political Violence , vol. 16, no.

2, p. 199. [5] Tilly, 'Terror, Terrorism, Terrorists', p. 5. [6] Hoffman, B. School Portfolio? (1998) Inside Terrorism , New York: Columbia University Press, p.43. [7] Emphasis added. Quoted in Martin, G. Essay Papers Pdf? (2003) Understanding Terrorism: Challenges, Perspectives, and Issues , Thousand Oaks: Sage, p. 33. [8] See Raphael, 'Putting the State Back In'. [9] Richardson, L., quoted in Good customer essay representative Taylor, M. and Horgan, J. (eds) (2000) The Future of English papers pdf, Terrorism London: Frank Cass. [10] I explore this problem in Jackson, R. (2007) 'Critical Reflection on Counter-sanctuary Discourse', in Michael Innes, (ed), Denial of Sanctuary: Understanding Terrorist Safe Havens , Westport, CT: Praeger Security International. [11] Silke, 'The Road Less Travelled', p. 206. [12] Quoted in Goodin, R. (2006) What's Wrong with Terrorism? Cambridge: Polity Press 2006, p. 55. [13] Laqueur, W. (1977), Terrorism . London: Weidenfeld and How to homework fast and efficiently qnap, Nicolson, p. 6. [14] Western state terrorism is discussed in more detail in essay papers pdf Jackson, 'Critical Reflection on Counter-sanctuary Discourse'.

[15] See for example, George, A. (1991), Western State Terrorism , Cambridge: Polity Press; Herman, E. (1982) The Real Terror Network: Terrorism in reading committee Fact and English papers pdf, Propaganda , South End Press. [16] In any case, it can be argued that states who employ terror as a mode of governance lack legitimacy. [17] Goodin, What's Wrong With Terrorism? , pp. Doctoral Dissertation? 50-77. [18] See Rummel, R. (1994) Death by Government . Somerset, NJ: Transaction Books; see also Goodin, What's Wrong With Terrorism? , p. 67).

[19] The former British ambassador to Uzbekistan reveals the nature and extent of Uzbek state terror and Western complicity in Craig Murray, Murder in Samarkland: A British Ambassador's Controversial Defiance of Tyranny in the War on Terror (Mainstream Publishing, 2006). [20]This is not to say that there are no scholars who examine state terrorism, simply that they are few and English papers, far between and tend to exist on the margins of or even outside of the main field. There has been some outstanding research on Good customer representative state terrorism, including: Sluka, J. (ed.), (2000), Death Squad: An Anthropology of State Terror (Penn: University of Pennsylvania Press); Stohl, M. and Lopez, G. (eds.) (1986), Government Violence and Repression: An Agenda for Research , ed. Bernard Johnpoll, Contributions in Political Science, New York: Greenwood; Gareau, F. Essay? (2004), State Terrorism and Doctoral dissertation, the United States: From Counterinsurgency to the War on Terrorism , London: Zed Books; and Grosscup, B. (2006) Strategic Terror: The Politics and Ethics of Aerial Bombardment . London: Zed Books. [21]Goodin, What's Wrong With Terrorism? p. 52. [22] On the issue of terrorism during war, an English papers excellent example is Grosscup, B. (2006) Strategic Terror: The Politics and Ethics of Aerial Bombardment . London: Zed Books. Grosscup provides a thoroughly convincing and eloquent argument about why the doctrine and practice of strategic bombing constitutes a form of state terrorism – not least because its original formulation was as ' terror bombing' aimed at civilians and intended 'to create such terror, destruction and misery as to undermine civilians' morale and in in a proposal swift order break their fragile will to resist' (p. 24). He goes on to document the use of English essay pdf, 'terror bombing' against civilian populations in numerous European colonies, in the Spanish Civil War and during World War II, and then in its new formulation as 'strategic bombing' in Delimitation in a doctoral dissertation proposal numerous conflicts since such as Korea, Cambodia, Vietnam, Lebanon, Chechnya, Kosovo, Afghanistan and Iraq. Furthermore, Grosscup demonstrates that the English papers, two most common justifications for strategic bombing – that unlike non-state terrorism it does not deliberately target civilians and that when large numbers of civilians are killed it is not intentional – are in fact, highly specious (p. 179).

[23] Goodin, What's Wrong With Terrorism? pp. 69-73. [25] Schmid, A. and A. Jongman, (1988) Political Terrorism: A New Guide to Actors, Authors, Concepts, Databases, Theories and Literature , Oxford: North Holland, p. 101. [26] See Zulaika, J. and W. Douglass, (1996) Terror and Taboo: The Follies, Fables, and Faces of Terrorism , London: Routledge; Jackson, R. (2005). Writing Essay Will? Writing the War on English papers pdf Terrorism: Language, Politics and Counterterrorism , Manchester: Manchester University Press; Jackson, R. Writing Assignment? (2007) 'Constructing Enemies: Islamic Terrorism in Political and Academic Discourse', Government Opposition , vol. 42, no. 3, pp. 394-426; Winkler, C. (2006) In the Name of Terrorism: Presidents on Political Violence in the Post-World War II Era , Albany, NY, State University of papers, New York Press; Collins, J. and Glover, R. (eds.) (2002) Collateral Language: A User's Guide to America's New War (New York University Press, 2002); and Croft, S. (2006) Culture, Crisis and America's War on Terror , Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

[27] See Zulaika and Douglass, Terror and Taboo . [28] Livingston, S. (1994) The Terrorism Spectacle , Boulder, CO: Westview Press. [29 ]Sluka, J. (2002) 'Comment: What Anthropologists should know about the Concept of Terrorism', Anthropology Today , vol. 18, no. 2, p. 23. [30] Zulaika and Douglass, Terror and Taboo , p. x. [31] Schmid, A. How To Fast? (2004) 'Frameworks for Conceptualising Terrorism', Terrorism and Political Violence , vol.

16, no. 2, p. English Papers Pdf? 205. [32] See Zulaika and Douglass, Terror and Taboo . [33] This point was made to me in conversation with Ken Booth, Aberystwyth University. [34] See Sluka, 'Introduction'. [35] Goodin, What's Wrong With Terrorism? p. 15.

[36] See Sharlach, L. Writing Essay? (forthcoming) 'Veil and Four Walls: A State of Terror in Pakistan', Critical Studies on English essay pdf Terrorism , vol. 1, no. 1. [37] See Jackson, R. (2007) 'The Core Commitments of Writing a research essay you how, Critical Terrorism Studies', European Political Sci ence, 6(3), 244-51. ENHANCING SECURITY THROUGH COLLABORATIVE RESEARCH. Perspectives on Terrorism is essay papers a journal of the Terrorism Research Initiative and the Center for Terrorism and Security Studies.

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Essay Topic Selection and Research. Strong topic selection is an English important first step. If possible, pick a topic that has lots of available research materials or aligns with items you are studying in other classes. Try to avoid current events as there may be a lack of available research materials. Sample Essay Topics.

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Essay References and Final Review. Finally, construct your works cited page using the right citation style guide. Depending on English essay, the format, you may also need a title page. Review your final essay by reading it out loud and make sure you addressed your original instructions! You should use EasyBib to quickly build citations in almost any format. Have a friend, teacher or trusted essay editing service review your final draft to make sure it is done properly (if you didn't already buy an homework hinduism essay). References and essay papers pdf, Considerations Before Buying an How to finish homework fast qnap Essay.

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