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art essay magazines Are magazines for habits young men likely to reinforce stereotypical, 'macho' and sexist attitudes in their readers? Men don't define themselves as men in what they read, they define themselves as people who are into cars, who play golf or fish. Successfully launching a general men's magazine would be like finding the Holy Grail -- Zed Zawada (campaign 29/8/86 p.41)[1] If this was the case in 1986 what has changed that has resulted in the men's magazine market becoming one of the fastest growing magazine sectors? The number of general interest magazine titles for men, such as Loaded , FHM , Men's Health , and GQ to name a few, has risen from obscurity over the past 10 years. Previously, the term 'men's magazine' referred to publications designed to interest men, such as car, fishing or DIY magazines. The new breed of magazines were aimed directly and overtly at a male readership, using masculinity as a marketing tool.

These magazines are seen by some to be a negative force in society as they objectify women and referencing, are openly sexist. Study! This essay will argue that the emergence of writing toronto best such titles is in response to a change in masculinity in society, reflected in both the possibility of producing such magazines and within the habits magazines themselves. The reasons for the inclusion of controversial material, besides that of entertainment, will become evident through looking at the development of geography men's magazines. This essay will then look both at the style and content of the magazines in terms of the in college construction of masculinity they express, 'macho' or otherwise, and the visual and rhetorical representations of women. Examples from two titles on the market, GQ and Loaded , will be analysed. GQ or Gentlemen's Quarterly is supposed to be at the top end of the market, and Writing a essay application joke, Loaded is leading the tabloid bunch!

Do both represent women as sex objects and exhibit a particularly 'macho' masculinity, reinforcing negative stereotypes? If stereotypes are rife, this essay will finally consider whether this has any effect on the attitudes of the habits in college readers of men's magazines. Outlining several theories on how and why such magazines developed, will help explain why stereotypical and objectifying material is included within the publications. Theorists Judith Butler and Foucault argue that gender is fluid, and can change within different contexts and over writing university, time. Essay! A shift in the attitudes and lifestyles of writing level referencing British men over the past 10 years opened up a market for men magazines. Tim Edwards asserts that it is the habits essay in college expansion in the concept and practice of men's fashion since the mid-1980's, which resulted in the emergence of style magazines such as GQ and Arena aimed specifically at the new style conscious male readership.[2] Nixon states that the advertising/publishing nexus focusing on university new male readers was an Study habits essay important site for the public formation and development of general interest men's magazines.[3] In order to create revenue, magazines have to attract advertisers and to attract advertisers they have to writing company best resume have a high readership. Magazines have found the Loaded formula i.e. beer, sex and babes, to be the most successful, consequently even the more upmarket titles are beginning to turn more 'laddish'. Others argue that the emergence of such magazines is an attempt to regain male dominance. Study Essay! Lacey suggests that it is the diminishing of for college application men's power that has resulted in such publications. The celebration of 'laddishness' is a desperate attempt to grasp what is left of traditional male identity. He states that the loss of power is a positive issue, but is worried that the danger is a reactionary backlash where angry men attempt to Study habits essay in college put 'their women' back in the kitchen.[4] Further to this point Stevenson and Kenny ask 'do we live in an era of greater risk' ? stating that feminism disrupts the certainties of the gender order.

This, along with the disappearance of jobs for life and the increased visibility of diverse sexuality's, are proving problematic for the once dominant male.[5] The magazines are currently caught between an attempt to construct masculinity as a form of fundamentalist certitude, while simultaneously responding to Write an essay for me hour a world where gender relations are changing.[6] Men's magazines can therefore be seen as a cultural response to social change. It has been argued that men's magazines are not solely responding to habits essay in college gender changes, but are a reaction to feminism and an attempt for men to regain some of the power they lost through this movement, in other words to return to a pre-feminist masculine ideal. As Stevenson puts it 'a 'blokelash' against feminism.' [7] Southwell, former editor of Loaded , admits otherwise, he insists Loaded was never conceived as an anti-feminist backlash, with the of essay wiki swaggering loutish lad ousting the feminised new man.[8] Immaterial of whether these publications were the result of a backlash against feminism, or whether there was merely a gap in market, masculinity is in crisis. Study Habits! Roger Horrocks is one critic who believes that masculinity in western culture is in deep crisis. With the benefits masculine gender can bring, with it comes a mask or disguise. The emphasis on male dominance in public areas of life has tended to obscure the emotional poverty of many men's lives.[9] Magazines tend to reflect this in that they portray only one side of masculinity, leaving out the emotional bit, and concentrating on the outward display of masculinity. Here one can see that the stereotyping of a high school lab report men within these magazines as macho male and habits in college, ignoring the stereotypical 'emotional male' or even 'soft lad', can lead to problems and criticisms. Horrocks asserts that little attention has been paid to a high lab report kinetics the stereotypes that are attached to men, or there has been the unspoken assumption that these are preferable.[10] 'In this world, 'real men' are fearless and invulnerable, unburdened by emotion or sensitivity to others.'[11] Buckingham is asserting that to be seen as a real man, you can not show emotion, and so men's magazines exclude sensitive issues and emotions in order to be seen as magazines for 'real men'. In discussing the release of a new magazine 'Deluxe' in an article for the media guardian, John Dugdale writes 'even though banning babes sacrifices the one sure-fire sales-boosting device in today's men's market, not least by reducing horny schoolboy appeal.

Are there really 150,000 soft lads out there.' [12] There appears to be a widely held assumption that if you don't mind the absence of scantily dressed babes from your magazine, then you are a soft-lad. 'What is obviously missing from this celebration of Study habits essay one-night stands, obsessive consumerism and male bonding is how men's needs for reciprocity and emotional warmth are to revision be met.'[13] (Stevenson et al, 2000) Metcalf and Humphries in their 1985 book ' The sexuality of men' describe a masculinity that doesn't seem too far removed from what magazines are portraying today. The authors described a masculinity characterised by aggression, competitiveness, emotional ineptitude and coldness and dependent on an overriding and exclusive emphasis on penetrative sex. What also emerged was the side of masculinity that the magazines try to avoid, a sense of the fears, anxieties and pain expressed by these men in relation to established script of masculinity; anxieties about sexual performance, estrangement from emotions, and poor relations with fathers.[14] By looking at the style and content of two major men's magazines, the extent to which stereotypes, sexist attitudes and 'macho' masculinity's are used will become evident. Loaded , launched in May 1994, is evidently more anti-style conscious than the other titles, due to essay a more working class emphasis. It played a large part in the social construction of the New Lad, a masculinity which Edwards describes as: 'Selfish, Loutish and inconsiderate to a point of infantile smelliness. He likes drinking, football and fucking, and in that order of preference. in short he is that most ghastly of all configuration, defensively working class which also means defensively masculine'.[15] (Edwards, 1997) GQ 's catch phrase is 'the magazine for men with an IQ,' in which it takes pleasure in the more traditional masculinity, including coverage of writing executive concerns and pitching itself at a more serious minded conservative older reader than the other titles. Essay In College! At it's release GQ was organised around menswear and style, popular music was absent and the kind of figures interviewed or profiled in GQ tended to be traditional professionals rather than the media-fashion-art based individuals of other titles. Visualised representation of Elements of essay meaning women were marginal. It is now evident that it has moved closer towards titles such as Loaded , taking on a more populist approach, but still trying to hold onto its glamour element, and maintain an in college interest in health and fashion. Of Essay! Edwards believes the primary role of men's style magazines is to encourage and perpetuate spending amongst its readers, evident through the Study essay in college emphasis upon consumption as a means to an essay for me join the new style elite, the high-profile advertising, and the visual attention paid to commodities.

One must wear the right suit, visit the right shops, and Study habits, get seen in the right apparel.[16] This leads to the construction of masculinity in terms of commodities, leading ultimately to masculinity as a matter of how one looks and not what one does. Geography! Although Edwards was talking about a previous ilk of magazines in the late Thatcherite era of rampant consumerism, the Study essay emphasis on commodities is still very apparent in today's magazines. There is Essay revision strategies geography a difference between the Study habits in college commodities promoted by each magazine. GQ includes a section on writing toronto resume 'motoring', 'interiors' and a 'style plus' feature, a fashion spread including a further commodity. For example 'Tooled up' (April 2000) features the latest DIY tools. Figure 1 reveals two aspects of GQ , firstly their target market. The garden furniture featured is Study aimed at the high earning, garden-proud individual. Secondly the feature uses women to make it more appealing to the reader.

The subtitle states 'Garden feature doesn't have to be strictly for the birds once the summer is over.' The bottom picture includes an abandoned bikini top, and the top photograph features the bare legs of a women. Here one sees that GQ also objectifies women and Essay company toronto best, insinuates sex to try and in college, sell it's product, and make a feature on university level referencing furniture more appealing. Loaded on in college the other hand focuses on entertainment items, such as computer games, fashion accessories, such as watches and trainers, and personal items such as mobile phones. Figure 2 reveals the accoutrements of the Loaded man. The model is young with large, innocent eyes staring straight into the camera, he is rather self-assured. His pose, with his hands raised, suggests he is admitting he is guilty of of essay wiki meaning being a bit of a player (sexually), suggested by the pack of cards and the play boy wallet.

His facial expression, which is rather cheeky, suggests he is unperturbed by this revelation. This man is a ladies man, and he is not ashamed, in fact he is prepared with his condom carrying case, and his toothbrush! Theodor Adorno (1903-69) would be extremely disgruntled with men's magazines. Firstly, he would suggest that it is the Study in college culture industries that churn out Elements of essay these unsophisticated magazines, replacing the more critical art forms which might lead people to actually question social life. Further, he would say that it is the culture industries that cultivate false needs in people. These are needs that can be fulfilled by the capitalist system, and habits in college, replace and suppress the true needs of creativity, independence and genuine happiness. Adorno would be unhappy with the commodities that the magazines promote, and Writing for college application joke, the idea that you are the man you are through what you buy.

Not only is Study essay in college this satisfying ones false needs, but it also displays commodity fetishism, in Writing a essay joke, that social relations and cultural experiences are objectified in terms of money. The readers are delighted by products because of how much they cost.[17] Sexism is an habits in college infamous trait of men's magazines, and it is How to a high believed that this will inevitably produce sexist attitudes amongst the readers. Habits! The April 2000 edition of Loaded includes 'The Stockings World Cup' (Figure 3), a competition to find the winning stockings from Write for me, '32 qualifiers played over 64 legs' . The judges objectify the winner remarking 'Karen showed us how much they make us fancy her'. The only in college worth of this article was that readers got to see 32 pairs of stockings photographed. Southwell states that a lot of Essay revision what could be called sexism in Study habits, Loaded is just a joke, he continues 'if some reader takes it as normal conversation then they don't get it and revision, they're never going to get it' .[18] But isn't this the problem? Those who take these derogatory comments concerning women at face value will think this is normal behaviour and so transfer such attitudes into habits essay in college, the real world. Lacey believes so, 'whether the distancing effect provided by of essay wiki, irony legitimises Loaded , and its ilk, is doubtful; irony appears to be lost on the bog standard 16 year old.' [19] Peter Howorth, the previous editor of Esquire attempts to justifies the objectification of women by saying 'Any good magazine must offer a balance of essay in college content, and part of that balance, if it is to reflect the interests of a high school lab report men, will inevitable be articles on beautiful women' .[20] This suggests that the magazines are just reflecting the readers interests. Habits! Feminists have argued that whatever the psychology of the men who rape, the background to its prevalence must be located in societies which define 'masculinity' at least in part, in terms of the for me assertion of heterosexual power, and Study habits in college, which continue to produce images across all forms of a essay for college joke representation depicting women as the prototypical object of sexual desire, men as its prototypical subjects.[21] This can be seen in figure 4, where Jordan, merely famous because she is beautiful, is seen staring at the viewer in a pose which could be seen as soft porn. Segal argues in response that masculine power may be privileged in our culture, but men are not merely sexual predators, nor women merely sexual prey, and Study, that this view fails to accommodate contradiction and diversity.[22] A further characteristic evident through the style and content of both magazines, and for college application, all men's magazines in general, is that they assert the heterosexuality of their readers. Edwards states this is due to the high level of anxiety concerning the possibility of off-putting their heterosexual readers if homosexuality is too overtly or openly condoned.[23] The magazines stress the habits virtues of a single lifestyle, as Stevenson et al state 'The great prize of bachelor hood is represented as a life where one has little responsibility for Essay revision strategies geography others and where one is truly free to do as one chooses, further, marriage is viewed as a form of social constraint, preventing men in their early 30's from Study in college, living a life of consumption and sexual freedom.' [24] This could be seen as merely reflecting society rather than truly advocating single life. Of Essay Wiki Meaning! Whereas Edwards sites consumption as the major site of masculinity's in magazines, Sean Nixon believes that it is within the fashion photography that the new coding's of Study habits masculinity, and there is more than one, are most extensively elaborated.[25] Menswear is seen primarily in terms of utility.

The main example is the suit, both a symbol of masculine sexuality and Writing for college application joke, a uniform of respectability. GQ focus quite strongly on the suit within its fashion pages. Figure 4 depicts Brett Anderson, the lead singer of suede, modelling Gucci's latest collection. By using Brett as a model it raises the profile of the shoot immediately, and involves an element of aspiration. In College! In this photograph Anderson is an essay for me situated in a large, panelled room. Many signifiers within the picture go against in college, the 'macho' male mould. Anderson looks introspective and pensive, and the full body shot reveals a vulnerability. Figure 6is a sharp contrast to the previous photograph, it depicts a fashion shoot titled 'lounging' which featured in strategies, Loaded (April, 2000). In College! It depicts casual wear, as opposed to the respectable, working suit featured in GQ . For Me! All that is featured of the model is his feet, but he is obviously relaxing on a sofa with his feet up, suggesting an untroubled, relaxed man.

The main element of the photograph is the extreme close up of the women's face on the television screen, her lips are parted and Study habits essay, her eyes are closed. It is a very sexual face, again highlighting the fact that women are used throughout the magazine, even within fashion shoots, as objects for men to look at, and highlighting the laddish masculinity of the male. Edwards believes that Loaded is taken too seriously by those who don't know better. But does the content of Loaded effect its readers? Adorno would argue that such material keeps its audience passive and preserves the a essay application joke dominant of capitalism at the expense of true happiness for the reader. Foucault, would structure his argument around power.

In 'The History of Sexuality' he argued that people do not have power implicitly, individuals engage in habits, it. Essay Writing Toronto Best Resume! He argues that there is no hierarchical power establishments stating: 'power comes from below; there is no binary and all-encompassing opposition between rulers and ruled at the root of power and serving as a general matrix - no such duality extending from the top down and reaching on more and more limited groups to the very depths of the social body'. Essay! [26] (Foucault,1981) Further, he would argue that the individual person has power to resist the media, 'where there is power there is resistance .'[27] This rejects the writing company best elitist view of the Frankfurt school, who believed the culture industry had an effect of anti-enlightenment, Adorno asserts 'it impedes the development of Study in college autonomous, independent individuals who judge and decide consciously for themselves.' [28] John Fiske is another theorist who would reject Adorno's notion of a mass negative effect on the audience of mass media, and would see the audience as individuals who read their own meanings into a text. In his work 'Moments of Television' Fiske discusses his theories in relation to television, but these can also be applied to other media. 'Making sense of popular television, then, is the process of activating meanings from it, and this process is controlled within more or less determined boundaries by the socially situated viewer. adequate space for different people to make different meaning'.[29] (Fiske, 1989) Further he would reject Adorno's notion of corporations deciding what is popular culture and stress that popular culture is made by Essay level referencing, the people for the people. 'It cannot conceive of the text as a site of struggle for the power to make meanings, or of the notion that what finally determines the meanings and Study essay in college, pleasures provoked by Writing a essay for college application joke, a text is the social situation of the viewer-reader, not the in college interests of the producers and their ideological investment in consumer capitalism.'[30] (Fiske, 1989) It is evident that magazines for young men do include stereotypical images of both men and women. They depict a fearless, competitive, 'laddish' masculinity, ignoring the emotional, sensitive male, and women are depicted as objects for men's contemplation and enjoyment. But it should be remembered that Stereotypes can be seen as an best unavoidable part of mass media representation.

Further these magazines are merely trying to entertain the habits reader, they are not seriously on a crusade to return to a pre-feminist ideal, or to harm anyone in for me, an attempt to provide entertainment. Former editor of Loaded James Brown describes the magazine as 'all about having the best fucking time of your life.' [31] Further, the habits essay inclusion of sexist material and stereotypical images are enjoyable to write kinetics the reader but are not likely to change their attitudes towards society. Study Essay! The readers have the power to reject such material and writing company toronto best resume, are able to make their own, individual meanings from the messages within men's magazines. Therefore, men's magazines can be seen merely as entertainment for, and Study habits essay, an escape for, the heterosexual male. Buckingham, D. Reading Audiences: Young People and Essay university level, The Media (Manchester, 1993) Carter, H. 'New Man, Old Myth?' in Study essay, 20:20 Media Magazine , winter 1996, pp.14-15. Dugdale, J. 'Middle Man' in Media Guardian, March 30 1998.

Dugdale, J. 'Time to Write hour Reload' in Media Guardian, November 30 1998. Edwards, T. Men in the Mirror: Men's Fashion, Masculinity and Consumer Society (London, 1997) Fiske, J. 'Moments of Television: Neither the text nor the audience' in Seiter, E, et al, eds., Remote Control: Television, Audience and Study in college, Cultural Power (London, 1989) Foucault, M. 'The History of Sexuality' p.92-102 in Storey, J ed. Cultural Theory and Popular Culture, A Reader (Hemel Hempstead, 1981) Horrocks, R. Masculinity in Crisis: Myths, Fantasies and Essay revision strategies geography, Realities (London, 1994) Kenny, M. and Stevenson, N. 'Masculinity: A Risky Path to Take?' in Study habits essay, Rutherford, J, ed. Essay Writing Company Toronto Resume! The Art of Life: On Living, Love and Death (London, 2000) Lacey, N. ' Loaded Lads and Lasses', in In The Picture , no. 29, winter 1996, pp. 16-17.

Nixon, S. Study Habits! 'Exhibiting Masculinity' in Hall, S, ed., Representation: Cultural Representations and strategies, Signifying Practices (London, 1997 ) Nixon, S. Hard Looks: Masculinity's; Spectatorship and Contemporary Consumption (London, 1996) Stevenson, N; Jackson, P and Study habits, Brooks, K. 'The Politics of 'new' men's lifestyle magazines' in European Journal of Cultural Studies (London, 2000) Strinati, D. 'An Introduction to Theories of of essay wiki popular Culture' (New York, 1995) Van Zoonen, L. 'Gender and Media Reception', in Feminist Media Studies (London, 1994) Jones, D, ed. ' GQ ' magazine, April 2000. Jones, D, ed. Habits! ' GQ ' magazine, July 2000. Southwell, T ed. ' Loaded ' magazine, April 2000. [1] Edwards, T. Men in the Mirror: Men's Fashion, Masculinity and writing toronto best resume, Consumer Society (London, 1997) p.72. [2] Edwards, T. Men in the Mirror: Men's Fashion, Masculinity and Study essay, Consumer Society (London, 1997) p.5. [3] Nixon, S. Hard Looks: Masculinity's; Spectatorship and write a high kinetics, Contemporary Consumption (Essex, 1996) p.145. Habits! [4] Lacey, N. ' Loaded Lads and Lasses', in In The Picture , no. 29, Winter 1996, pp. 16-17. [5] Kenny, M and Essay writing resume, Stevenson, N. 'Masculinity: A Risky Path to Take?' in Study habits essay in college, Rutherford, J, ed. The Art of Life: On Living, Love and Essay company toronto, Death (London, 2000) p.135. [6] Stevenson, N; Jackson, P and Brooks, K. 'The Politics of 'new' men's lifestyle magazines' in Study essay, European Journal of Cultural Studies (London, 2000) p.377. [7] Kenny, M and Stevenson, N. How To Write A High School Kinetics! 'Masculinity: A Risky Path to Take?' in Rutherford, J. Study Habits In College! ed. The Art of Life: On Living, Love and Death (London, 2000) p.137. [8] Dugdale, J. 'Time to Reload' in Media Guardian, November 30 1998, p.2. [9] Horrocks, R. Revision Geography! Masculinity in Crisis: Myths, Fantasies and Realities (London, 1994) p.26. Habits Essay! [11] Buckingham, D. Reading Audiences: Young People and The Media (Manchester, 1993) p.89. [12] Dugdale, J. 'Middle Man' in Media Guardian, March 30 1998, p.4. [13] Stevenson, N; Jackson, P and Brooks, K. 'The Politics of 'new' men's lifestyle magazines' in Essay writing best, European Journal of Study Cultural Studies (London, 2000) p.379. [14] Nixon, S. 'Exhibiting Masculinity' in write, Hall, S, ed., Representation: Cultural Representations and Signifying Practices (London, 1997 ) p.295. [15] Edwards, T. Study Essay In College! Men in the Mirror: Men's Fashion, Masculinity and Consumer Society (London, 1997) p.82.

[16] Edwards, T. Men in the Mirror: Men's Fashion, Masculinity and Consumer Society (London, 1997) p.74. [17] Gauntlett, D. 'Theory, gender and identity resources - Theodor Adorno' at http://www.theory.org.uk/ctr-ador.htm (accessed: 9 November 2000) [18] Carter, H. Toronto Resume! 'New Man, Old Myth?' in 20:20 Media Magazine , winter 1996, pp.14-15. [19] Lacey, N. ' Loaded Lads and Lasses', in In The Picture , no. 29, pp. 16-17. [20] Stevenson, N; Jackson, P and Study habits, Brooks, K. 'The Politics of 'new' men's lifestyle magazines' in European Journal of university Cultural Studies (London, 2000) p.376. [21] Segal, L. 'Sexualities' in Woodward, K. ed., Identity and Difference (London, 1997) p.208. Study Habits Essay! [22] Segal, L 'Sexualities' in Woodward, K, ed., Identity and Difference (London, 1997) p.208. [23] Edwards, T Men in the Mirror: Men's Fashion, Masculinity and write a high, Consumer Society (London, 1997) p.75. [24] Stevenson, N; Jackson, P and Brooks, K 'The Politics of 'new' men's lifestyle magazines' in habits essay in college, European Journal of Cultural Studies (London, 2000) p.378. [25] Nixon, S Hard Looks: Masculinity's; Spectatorship and Contemporary Consumption (Essex, 1996) p.4. [26] Foucault, M. 'The History of Essay revision strategies geography Sexuality' p.92-102 in Storey, J ed. Cultural Theory and Popular Culture, A Reader (Hemel Hempstead, 1981) p.166. [28] Strinati, D. 'An Introduction to Theories of popular Culture' (New York, 1995) p.54. [29] Fiske, J. 'Moments of Television: Neither the text nor the audience' in Study, Seiter, E, et al, eds., Remote Control: Television, Audience and Essay, Cultural Power (London, 1989) p.58. [30] Fiske, J. 'Moments of Television: Neither the text nor the audience' in habits essay in college, Seiter, E, et al, eds., Remote Control: Television, Audience and Write for me hour, Cultural Power (London, 1989) p.61. [31] Dugdale, J. 'Time to Reload' in Study habits in college, Media Guardian, November 30 1998, p.2.

Unfortunately, most of the images from the original essay could not be reproduced here. This is Essay what they were: Figure 1 GQ interiors 'Keep off the grass' in GQ July 2000. Figure 2 Loaded fashion article 'Picked Pockets' in Loaded April 2000. Figure 3 'The Stockings worldcup' in Loaded April 2000. Figure 4 'Who is Kate Price' article on Jordan in Loaded April 2000. In College! Figure 5 GQ fashion spread 'He's in Fashion' in GQ April 2000.

Figure 6 Loaded Fashion Spread 'Lounging' in Loaded April 2000. This essay was written in Writing a essay application joke, autumn 2000, when Lucy Brown took the module 'Communications Theory' at the Institute of Communications Studies, University of Leeds, UK.

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Quels leaderships pour la reussite de tous les eleves ? Comment le partage des responsabilites au niveau de la direction d’un etablissement scolaire peut-il favoriser la reussite des eleves ? Cette question constitue la cle de voute de ce nouveau dossier d’actualites du service Veille et analyses (n°73), intitule « Quels leaderships pour la reussite de tous les eleves ? ». En s’appuyant sur les recherches recentes menees en France et a l’international, il met en evidence la generalisation progressive d’un modele de direction au service des apprentissages, dans des etablissements beneficiant partout d’une autonomie croissante tout en etant davantage tenus de rendre compte de leurs performances. Malgre des variations importantes selon les pays et quels que soient les modes de leadership adoptes, la position cle du chef d’etablissement est partout reaffirmee, non plus seulement pour gerer l’ecole, mais aussi pour promouvoir une dynamique pedagogique collective : c’est l’engagement conjoint des equipes de direction et des equipes enseignantes qui est a meme de garantir une meilleure reussite des eleves. Pour autant, si chercheurs et decideurs semblent s’accorder sur l’importance de renforcer le leadership pedagogique au sein des etablissements, les reformes entreprises ne parviennent aujourd’hui que marginalement a enrayer la rarefaction des vocations, tant chez les chefs d’etablissement que chez les enseignants. Habits Essay In College! Quelles orientations seraient a privilegier pour renverser la tendance ? Quels efforts seraient a consentir pour que ces metiers redeviennent attractifs ? La direction des etablissements scolaires est devenue une priorite forte de l’action gouvernementale en matiere d’education dans un grand nombre de pays (Pont et al. Write An Essay For Me Hour! , 2008). Habits In College! Politiques publiques et recherches s’accordent pour considerer le role crucial joue par le chef d’etablissement non seulement en matiere de management, mais aussi dans la dynamique pedagogique qui mobilise son personnel. How To Write A High Kinetics! Autrement dit, on habits in college, evolue d’ un modele « gestionnaire » a un modele de direction au service des apprentissages des eleves . Ces evolutions interviennent dans un contexte marque par une double tendance : d’une part une autonomie plus large des etablissements et corollairement une attention plus forte portee aux resultats de l’ecole (Eurydice, 2007 ; Pair, 2007 ; Hassani Meuret, 2010), et d’autre part une penurie croissante de candidats qualifies pour assurer la releve de chefs d’etablissement vieillissants et une rarefaction des vocations enseignantes (AFAE, 2010 ; Schleicher, 2012). Dans ce contexte, il est dans l’interet des systemes educatifs de promouvoir des formes de pilotage, au niveau des etablissements, qui vont au-dela des modalites bureaucratiques et gestionnaires traditionnelles, avec des statuts, des salaires et indemnites et des mecanismes d’evaluation et de promotion de carriere, qui accompagnent l’engagement des chefs d’etablissements et des enseignants en faveur d’une qualite de l’education (Schleicher, 2012).

Le « leadership », entendu comme une approche globale du partage des responsabilites au niveau de l’etablissement, voire a un niveau inter-etablissements, en vue de promouvoir le changement, constitue une piste privilegiee aujourd’hui par nombre de pays. En France toutefois, les resistances sont fortes. Essay Writing University Referencing! Les chefs d’etablissement, dont le corps a ete cree en 2001, doivent rompre avec la profession enseignante dont ils sont issus et se conformer a des pratiques de direction de plus en plus normalisees (Pelage, 2011). Study Habits! Les enseignants sont pour leur part traditionnellement hostiles a une direction aux fonctions elargies, supposee aller a l’encontre de leur liberte pedagogique (Gauthier, 2007). Apres une premiere synthese sur les synergies entre leadership et changements educatifs (Gaussel, 2007), le service Veille et Analyses propose dans ce dossier une analyse approfondie des acteurs et des pratiques du leadership, a partir des travaux recents realises par des experts et chercheurs internationaux. Write School Lab Report Kinetics! Apres avoir inscrit les principes du leadership dans un contexte politique global, nous nous interessons aux roles des chefs d’etablissement et des enseignants dans les etablissements scolaires avant de presenter plusieurs types de leadership qui semblent faire plus ou moins consensus. Meme si l’organisation du systeme scolaire releve de la seule responsabilite des Etats, ces derniers sont tenus par des lignes directrices communes, decidees au niveau europeen (Hutmacher, 2007) ou dans des organismes internationaux tels la Banque mondiale et l’OCDE.

La doxa dominante peut se resumer ainsi (Pair, 2007) : dans une economie fondee sur la connaissance et dans le cadre de la lutte contre la pauvrete, l’education est essentielle ; mais les systemes educatifs sont trop rigides dans un monde en perpetuel mouvement ; la solution consiste a deplacer le pouvoir vers les usagers et davantage responsabiliser les etablissements scolaires ; il revient aux pouvoirs publics de creer le cadre de cette responsabilisation ; les outils disponibles sont le mode de financement, le libre choix de l’ecole laisse aux usagers et l’evaluation des etablissements ainsi que la publication des resultats de ces evaluations. Les travaux de l’OCDE montrent que la notion de « direction », traduction restrictive du terme anglais « leadership », suppose l’exercice d’une influence intentionnelle par une personne (ou un groupe) sur d’autres personnes (ou d’autres groupes), et repose sur la formulation d’objectifs ou de resultats a atteindre. Habits Essay In College! Elle se distingue de la gestion et de l’administration d’un etablissement scolaire, plus etroitement associees a une efficacite procedurale, en lien avec un temps plus ou moins present. Essay Revision Strategies! Les trois taches, toutefois fortement imbriquees, rentrent dans les attributions des chefs d’etablissement. Study! Le pouvoir de diriger n’est pas le fait d’une seule personne, mais peut etre reparti entre plusieurs personnes au sein de l’ecole et en dehors de celle-ci (Pont et al. For Me! , 2008). En explorant les differentes approches scientifiques, essentiellement nord-americaines, developpees depuis les annees 70, Spillane et al. Study Essay! (2008) distinguent deux traditions dominantes : une tradition qui envisage le leadership comme lie a la personnalite, a la competence et au style des personnes, et une autre tradition, moins repandue et plus deterministe, liee a des formes d’organisations dominantes plutot qu’a des pratiques individuelles. En France, le terme utilise est plutot celui de pilotage , dont Pair (2007) donne la definition suivante : « l e pilotage met en jeu des regles de fonctionnement, des objectifs a atteindre, des decisions pour que la mise en ? uvre conduise a des resultats conformes aux objectifs. Essay Level Referencing! Les decisions ne sont pas prises une fois pour toutes et le pilotage comporte donc une boucle de regulation qui vise a ce que les resultats obtenus se rapprochent des objectifs fixes ». La notion de « pilotage » heurte certaines susceptibilites dans le corps enseignant : il y a une culture traditionnellement hostile a cette idee qui est vecue comme allant a l’encontre de la liberte pedagogique.

Ceci est d’autant plus pregnant en France que l’etablissement n’est pas l’echelon principal en ce qui concerne le travail collectif ou l’evaluation : les programmes sont decides au niveau national et sont mis en ?uvre dans la classe, ce qui est source d’inegalite et d’inefficacite (Gauthier, 2007). Pour Obin (2007), trois modes de pilotage se confrontent : pilotage par les normes (derive bureaucratique) ; pilotage par les objectifs et les valeurs (prospere de nos jours, mais derive technocratique possible) ; pilotage par les valeurs et l’action commune. Habits In College! C’est ce dernier mode de pilotage qu’il defend. Pour Barroso, ce qui a ete initie dans les pays anglo-saxons par les politiques neo-liberales de la nouvelle droite (Thatcher et Reagan), connu sous le nom de self-management school (Royaume-Uni, Australie et Nouvelle Zelande) ou de school-based management (Etats-Unis ou Canada), se distingue des volontes d’ameliorer les systemes existants comme en Allemagne, Norvege, ou encore Portugal, Espagne, France, Italie : les contextes et les histoires ne sont pas les memes. Writing Resume! La principale difference entre ces deux approches reside davantage dans le libre choix des familles et la concurrence accrue entre etablissements (pays anglo-saxons) que dans l’autonomie et la decentralisation qui est une tendance dans tous les pays (Barroso, 2007). Vers une nouvelle gestion publique : decentralisation, autonomie, obligation de resultats. Quelles reformes en matiere de decentralisation ? De nombreux pays ont engage des reformes de leurs systemes educatifs en faveur de la decentralisation. Study Habits In College! Il s’agit de s’appuyer sur des etablissements scolaires qui jouissent d’une plus grande autonomie, tout en etant soumis a une plus grande obligation de resultats ( accountability ). Wiki! Cette autonomie touche potentiellement la gestion budgetaire, les ressources humaines et la direction pedagogique.

La reddition de comptes porte moins sur la mise en ?uvre des moyens que sur les resultats obtenus par les enseignants et les eleves. Study Habits Essay! La pression sur le chef d’etablissement peut generer une tension plus ou moins forte entre la responsabilite individuelle et les attentes collectives (parents, enseignants, administrateurs, etc.) (Barzano, 2011). Ces reformes empruntent cependant des formes variables. Essay Writing University Level! Globalement, on Study essay in college, distingue les pays du Nord de l’Europe ou la liberte des acteurs locaux est largement soutenue par la decentralisation politique, des pays du Sud qui demeurent peu enclins a favoriser l’autonomie des etablissements. Entre les deux, c’est la dissonance qui domine. Essay Writing University Level Referencing! Ainsi en Belgique et au Pays-Bas, les etablissements sont historiquement dotes d’une forte autonomie. In College! Des politiques extremement volontaristes se sont developpees des les annees 1980 au Royaume-Uni (Angleterre, Pays de Galles et Irlande du Nord). How To Write School! Des pays comme l’Allemagne et la France, de par leur histoire respective, ont realise des avancees timides en matiere d’autonomie des etablissements (Eurydice, 2007).

S’agissant des mecanismes de responsabilisation, l’Angleterre reste sans conteste le pays dans lequel une politique nationale exigeante a ete generalisee, basee sur la publication periodique de rapports. Study! Dans les autres pays, c’est la diversite qui prevaut, avec une tendance naturelle a s’appuyer sur les dispositifs de controle deja en vigueur. Writing Application Joke! Au Portugal, le directeur rend des comptes devant l’assemblee qui l’a elu. In College! En France, ce sont les lettres de mission et les contrats d’objectifs passes avec l’administration territoriale qui sont les instruments d’evaluation. Toronto Best Resume! En Italie, meme si l’evaluation existe dans les textes officiels, elle n’a pas de realite dans le quotidien des etablissements (Barzano, 2011). Malgre des calendriers differents, les pays d’Europe ne font plus aujourd’hui de ces reformes une finalite ; la decentralisation est ainsi davantage consideree comme un moyen au service d’objectifs plus directement en lien avec l’enseignement et l’apprentissage (Eurydice, 2007). Autonomie des etablissements et leadership. Les travaux de l’OCDE distinguent deux modeles de decentralisation qui peuvent influer sur le role du chef d’etablissement et donc sur le leadership (Pont et al. Study! , 2008) : une decentralisation basee sur une responsabilite « locale » , caracterisee par un transfert des pouvoirs de decision a une instance intermediaire entre l’Etat central et l’etablissement scolaire (les Local Authorities en Angleterre ou les School Districts aux Etats-Unis). Kinetics! Les ecoles font ainsi partie d’un ensemble plus vaste d’etablissements, les chefs d’etablissement sont amenes a exercer des fonctions de pilotage en dehors du perimetre de leur ecole et sont tenus de savoir travailler en reseau au sein du systeme educatif local. Study Habits Essay In College! une decentralisation basee sur une responsabilite de l’ecole , caracterisee par une delegation de pouvoirs a l’etablissement meme. Essay Company Toronto Best Resume! La charge d’administration et de gestion dans ces etablissements est plus lourde et va souvent de pair avec une diminution du temps accorde au pilotage des activites d’enseignement et d’apprentissage.

Le personnel enseignant, les parents et les representants locaux participent souvent de facon formelle ou informelle aux prises de decision concernant l’etablissement. Quel que soit le modele dominant a l’echelle nationale, les responsabilites des etablissements varient considerablement selon les pays, mais aussi selon les domaines de decision. Essay In College! Certains pays pronent l’autonomie a la fois administrative et pedagogique des etablissements ; c’est le cas des Pays-Bas, de la Republique Tcheque et, dans une moindre mesure, de l’Angleterre. Essay Writing Toronto! D’autres, a l’inverse, disposent de marges de man?uvre extremement reduites, tant en terme de gestion de budget et de ressources humaines, qu’en termes de programmes et d’evaluation (Grece, Turquie). Study Habits! D’autres enfin combinent une forte autonomie pedagogique avec une faible autonomie administrative : Nouvelle-Zelande, Coree et Japon (OCDE, 2011). Write For Me Hour! Si dans des pays tels que les Etats-Unis, les Pays-Bas, le Royaume-Uni et la Suede, le pouvoir de decision des chefs d’etablissement est eleve dans la plupart des domaines, il reste bien plus limite dans des pays tels que la Grece, le Portugal et la Turquie (OCDE, 2007). Essay In College! Au Chili, en Coree et aux Etats-Unis, le role du chef d’etablissement varie fortement selon les ecoles ; a l’inverse au Danemark et en Norvege, les chefs d’etablissement ont des roles relativement homogenes d’une ecole a l’autre (Pont et al. Essay! , 2008). Leadership et culture du changement. Le leadership, en tant que relais entre les politiques publiques et les pratiques educatives, est un maillon essentiel de la mise en ?uvre des reformes.

Autrement dit, il est en quelque sorte garant du changement. Habits Essay! Son influence s’exerce a la fois sur l’adaptation des processus scolaires et sur les cultures et comportements des personnels. Cette capacite de l’etablissement, non seulement a traduire sur le terrain les reformes voulues par l’Etat central mais aussi a s’adapter a son environnement et tenir compte des evolutions societales, est au c?ur des defis que l’ecole doit relever pour former les citoyens de demain (Pont et al. Essay Toronto Resume! , 2008). Habits Essay! Pour Spillane et al. Writing Company Best! (2008), le leadership vise fondamentalement a promouvoir le changement et l’innovation ; il se distingue ainsi du management qui cherche a garantir la stabilite et le bon fonctionnement de l’etablissement. Dans une perspective de leadership, il s’agit en priorite d’agir sur l’environnement et pas seulement de reagir a l’environnement. C’est aussi l’idee defendue par Ehrich Cranston (2009) lorsqu’ils estiment que dans un monde en perpetuel changement, les chefs d’etablissement doivent etre proactifs et ne pas se contenter d’appliquer des reformes. Pour Fullan (2010), le changement peut etre « conduit » ( led ) mais pas controle ( managed ), et c’est le chef d’etablissement qui joue un role cle dans ce processus. Study! C’est lui qui peut mobiliser les enseignants, garantir de bonnes conditions d’exercice et promouvoir une culture apprenante au sein de l’etablissement.

Le changement n’est pas reductible a l’innovation, mais concerne davantage la capacite a innover dont l’organisation – ici l’ecole – fait preuve ( innovation vs innovativeness ). University Referencing! « The principal of the habits in college future – the Write for me Cultural Change Principal – must be attuned to Study habits essay in college the big picture, a sophisticated conceptual thinker who transforms the of essay wiki meaning organization through people and Study, teams (Fullan, 2001). Essay University! Cultural Change Principals display palpable energy, enthusiasm, and habits, hope. Essay Level Referencing! In addition, five essential components characterize leaders in Study in college, the knowledge society: moral purpose, an Essay understanding of the Study habits in college change process, the Writing for college ability to Study improve relationships, knowledge creation and Write an essay for me, sharing, and Study, coherence making » (Fullan, 2010). Cette vision fondamentalement dynamique de l’etablissement, qui s’incarne notamment dans la fonction de chef d’etablissement, ne trouve que peu de resonance dans les pratiques de leadership telles qu’elles peuvent etre observees aujourd’hui par les chercheurs. Essay Writing University Level Referencing! Le focus porte clairement sur l’evaluation du « changement » , c’est-a-dire l’amelioration des resultats des eleves.

1. Diriger autrement pour ameliorer les resultats des eleves. L’autonomie croissante des etablissements s’accompagne d’un recentrage sur les questions d’enseignement et d’apprentissage. Essay! Le reseau Leadership for an essay for me, Learning recemment cree par la faculte d’education de Cambridge, est une manifestation concrete des liens etroits entre leadership et pedagogie qui rassemble ici professionnels du leadership et chercheurs. Study Habits Essay! Le 32 eme colloque de l’AFAE, intitule « Equipe de direction, equipe enseignante » interroge les tensions entre sphere administrative et sphere pedagogique, tout en cherchant a les depasser (AFAE, 2010). Pour Gauthier (2007), en effet, l’initiative pedagogique doit etre au c?ur de l’etablissement et ne peut venir que d’un collectif. Revision Geography! Avec le leadership, « il ne s’agit en realite pas de quelque autorite personnelle du chef qui irait imposer un « pouvoir pedagogique », mais de la fonction d’initiative pedagogique dont chaque professeur doit etre porteur et qui doit etre repartie entre les acteurs, et coordonnee par le chef d’etablissement ». Study Habits Essay! Il en est de meme pour Spillane et al. For College Application Joke! (2008) : « le leadership est defini comme l’identification, l’acquisition, l’affectation, la coordination et l’utilisation des ressources sociales, materielles et culturelles qui etablissent les conditions prealables a l’enseignement et aux apprentissages. Habits In College! Il implique de mobiliser le personnel, les eleves pour reperer et s’attaquer aux taches de reforme pedagogique et exploiter les ressources necessaires pour soutenir la transformation de l’enseignement et des apprentissages . Company Toronto! » Cet horizon commun se traduit par la definition de nouveaux indicateurs, fondes sur des objectifs d’equite et de reussite des eleves : ameliorer les resultats des eleves, notamment pour ce qui concerne les competences de base ; reduire les ecarts de resultats entre les differentes populations d’eleves ; assurer une meilleure integration de certaines populations d’eleves a besoins particuliers ; reduire les taux de decrochage, en particulier dans l’enseignement obligatoire, etc. L’idee qu’une direction d’etablissement efficace doit permettre d’ameliorer l’efficience et l’equite de l’enseignement s’enracine dans deux courants de pensee qui marquent les recherches sur la qualite en education depuis pres de 30 ans : school effectiveness et school improvement. L’influence du school effectiveness et du school improvement. Si l’on observe aujourd’hui une certaine convergence entre ces deux courants, les approches qui ont preside a leur creation restent relativement distinctes (Berger et al. Essay! , 2004).

D’un cote, le courant des ecoles efficaces ( school effectiveness ) cherche a montrer que les resultats variables des eleves peuvent s’expliquer par des facteurs qui ne relevent pas exclusivement des caracteristiques de ces memes eleves, mais sont aussi lies aux etablissements et aux enseignants. How To Lab Report Kinetics! Les recherches, plutot quantitatives, sont centrees sur l’organisation de l’ecole, elles s’appuient preferentiellement sur des evaluations externes, s’interessent a l’ecole telle qu’elle est et privilegient une approche du changement focalisee sur les reformes en cours. D’un autre cote, le courant de l’amelioration de l’ecole ( school improvement ) porte davantage sur les processus ; il s’agit d’une « approche particuliere du changement educatif qui a pour objectif d’ameliorer les resultats des eleves aussi bien que la capacite de l’ecole a gerer les changements. Habits! Elle se preoccupe d’ameliorer la performance de l’eleve en se concentrant sur le processus d’enseignement-apprentissage et sur les conditions qui le soutiennent. How To Write A High School Lab Report! » (Hopkins 2001, cite par Berger et al. Study Habits! , 2004). Meaning! Les recherches sont plutot qualitatives, privilegient l’auto-evaluation des etablissements et s’interessent au « comment » les ecoles « deviennent » efficaces (et donc aux acteurs). Dans l’un ou l’autre cas, les etudes realisees ont pris le contrepied de ce qui etait defendu dans les annees 1960-70 : les differences entre etablissements s’expliqueraient davantage par des pratiques manageriales differentes que par les publics qui les frequentent. Study Habits! Les etudes plus recentes depassent ce debat et posent une double hypothese : « d’une part, les processus manageriaux et pedagogiques developpes dans les etablissements scolaires sont indexes par le public qui les compose, et d’autre part, l’articulation de ces pratiques avec la composition d’etablissement est un facteur explicatif significatif des differences entre etablissements scolaires . A High Kinetics! » (Dumay Dupriez, 2004). En tout etat de cause, avec les enquetes PISA, le role des etablissements scolaires dans la reussite des eleves est revenu sur le devant de la scene (Rey, 2011), et les deux courants tendent a se rapprocher (cf. Study Essay! revue School Effectiveness School Improvement ) : les modes d’evaluation se combinent pour le benefice a la fois des etablissements et des eleves, sous l’effet de la generalisation des politiques d’obligation de resultats (Townsend, 2007).

Les recherches issues de ces courants trouvent cependant un echo marginal en France. Essay Revision! Depuis la loi d’orientation de 1989, c’est le projet d’etablissement qui concentre l’attention des pouvoirs publics et des chercheurs, meme si cette orientation est moins dominante aujourd’hui. Essay In College! C’est le role preponderant de l’Etat francais dans la definition de l’architecture du systeme educatif qui pourrait expliquer le peu d’interet accorde aux correlations potentielles entre la vie de l’etablissement et ses performances (Berger et al. Writing For College! , 2004). En France, l’effet maitre est important, c’est pourquoi d’apres Forestier (2007), l’autonomie pedagogique doit primer lorsque l’on parle d’autonomie des etablissements. Habits Essay In College! D’apres les chiffres avances par Bressoux (2008), l’effet maitre intervient dans la reussite des eleves a hauteur de 10%, tout comme l’origine sociale, et l’effet etablissement a hauteur de 5%. Elements Wiki! Le rapport s’inverse toutefois dans les etablissements situes dans des zones defavorisees, rendant le travail en equipe plus necessaire. Quel impact du leadership sur l’enseignement et l’apprentissage ? Toutes les etudes portant sur le deploiement d’une reforme ou d‘un dispositif quel qu’il soit soulignent systematiquement l’importance de l’engagement du chef d’etablissement pour une meilleure atteinte des objectifs. Study! Tout se passe comme s’il etait entendu que la direction d’un etablissement devait jouer un role moteur a tous les niveaux, sans que soient precisement pointes les effets d’une insuffisance. Ce qui contribue effectivement a l’amelioration des resultats des eleves n’est pas non plus evident a demontrer parce que la reussite ou l’echec n’est bien evidemment pas imputable au seul leadership. A Essay! Les recherches mettent generalement en evidence trois types de correlation : l’origine sociale, economique et culturelle des eleves, qui constitue la principale source de variation ; les facteurs lies au systeme scolaire (niveau macro) ; les variables liees a l’etablissement scolaire, en particulier l’engagement des enseignants et les pratiques pedagogiques (Feyfant, 2011). Les recherches de type « evidence-based » ne permettent pas en effet de mettre au jour une correlation directe entre le leadership et la reussite des eleves.

La mega-analyse realisee par Hattie (synthese de 800 meta-analyses traitant 50000 recherches) ne fournit que des preuves indirectes de cette correlation : le fait que les apprentissages se deroulent dans un climat scolaire structure, que les enseignants developpent des pratiques collegiales au sein d’equipes motivees et stables, favorisent les apprentissages. Study! Mais ce sont les facteurs lies a la personnalite de l’enseignant et a l’organisation d’une seance pedagogique qui sont les mieux a meme de predire la reussite des eleves (Hattie, 2009). Write Hour! Ces resultats convergent avec d’autres travaux qui mettent invariablement en evidence le role charniere, bien qu’indirect, joue par le chef d’etablissement dans la progression des eleves (Scheerens, 2007 ; Townsend, 2007). Certaines revues systematiques, centrees exclusivement sur les liens entre leadership et reussite des eleves vont egalement dans ce sens. Study Habits In College! Les huit etudes de cas analysees par l’EPPI-Centre de Londres (Bell et al. Essay Writing! , 2003) montrent que ce sont les actions du leadership en faveur du travail des enseignants, de l’organisation de l’ecole et des relations avec les parents et plus largement la communaute qui peuvent avoir un impact sur la reussite des eleves. Les travaux de Leithwood et al. Habits In College! (2006) pour le Ministere de l’education anglais soulignent l’importance des qualites et des competences personnelles des leaders pour developper des strategies adaptees a l’environnement ou ils se trouvent : il s’agit d’agir simultanement sur les capacites et motivations des personnels de l’etablissement et sur les conditions dans lesquelles ils interviennent. Essay Strategies! Si les performances de l’etablissement sont faibles, la mobilisation pour construire une culture commune de la reussite par exemple sera davantage le fait du chef d’etablissement au depart que le resultat d’une construction collective.

La revue systematique realisee par Robinson et al. Study Habits In College! (2009) pour le Ministere de l’education neo-zelandais montre qu’un leadership focalise sur la pedagogie ( pedagocical leadership ) est plus a meme d’influencer positivement la reussite des eleves qu’un leadership davantage base sur les relations et la promotion d’une vision commune ( transformational leadership ). Level Referencing! Parmi les cinq dimensions pedagogiques identifiees, ce sont les actions du leadership visant a promouvoir le developpement des enseignants qui sont les plus efficaces : il s’agit de leur fournir des opportunites formelles et informelles d’evoluer dans leurs pratiques en favorisant un climat d’echanges entre enseignants et eleves, en developpant une responsabilite collective pour la reussite des eleves et en accompagnant les enseignants pour resoudre les difficultes rencontrees. Habits In College! 2. Si l’on apprehende toute l’importance du « collectif » dans la plupart des etudes d’impact dediees au leadership, peu de recherches empiriques permettent d’evaluer veritablement les effets du leadership distribue (Leithwood et al. Writing University! , 2006). Essay In College! D’apres Mulford (2003), un leadership qui est a la fois base sur un role fort du chef d’etablissement et sur une distribution des fonctions de direction est le plus a meme de faire une difference, en particulier dans une perspective d’amelioration durable ( sustainable improvement ). Write An Essay Hour! Cette perspective, pour etre effective, ne peut se limiter aux modalites du nouveau management public, elle doit s’appuyer sur la capacite meme de l’ecole a apprendre et evoluer. Habits Essay! 3.

Pour Elmore (2008) egalement, les strategies pour developper et diffuser les connaissances et les competences au sein des etablissements sont essentielles. Write Hour! Il plaide pour une fonction davantage centree sur l’« apprentissage organisationnel » ( organisational learning ) et moins regulee par les mesures de controle et evaluations externes. Study In College! Les recents travaux de Day et al. Writing Company Toronto! (2009) font echo a cette conclusion. In College! Les etablissements les moins efficaces accordent plus d’importance a l’utilisation des donnees qu’aux valeurs communes qui cimentent les actions de leadership et qui visent a la fois la promotion du bien etre individuel et social et la meilleure reussite des eleves. Les chefs d’etablissement des ecoles les plus efficaces savent ameliorer les resultats des eleves a travers ce qu’ils sont (leurs valeurs, leurs competences) et les strategies qu’ils deploient (Day et al. Of Essay Meaning! , 2009) Ils empruntent tous a un repertoire de valeurs educatives et de qualites personnelles et interpersonnelles et a un eventail d’actions strategiques internes et externes, mais savent aussi articuler ces elements avec les besoins de l’ecole et les injonctions des politiques nationales. Les enseignements de PISA ne sont pour autant pas a negliger quand on Study essay in college, s’eloigne des etablissements pour examiner l’efficacite des differents systemes educatifs.

Ils s’averent notamment sans ambiguite quand il s’agit d’evaluer l’impact de l’autonomie sur les performances. Of Essay Wiki! « Plus les etablissements d’enseignement sont nombreux a detenir la responsabilite de la definition et de l’elaboration de leurs programmes et evaluations, plus la performance du systeme d’education dans son ensemble est elevee » (OCDE, 2011). C’est donc l’autonomie pedagogique au niveau de l’etablissement qui predit le mieux la reussite des eleves. En revanche, la correlation entre l’autonomie administrative et la performance des etablissements est moins evidente ; elle s’avere positive dans les pays ou la culture de la responsabilisation est favorisee, c’est-a-dire dans les pays ou les etablissements rendent majoritairement publics leurs resultats (OCDE, 2011). L’autonomie des etablissements va de pair avec de nouveaux modeles de repartition des taches de direction et de nouveaux types de responsabilite. Habits In College! Le leadership s’entend comme un engagement collectif, il ne releve pas de la seule responsabilite du chef d’etablissement. Writing For College Joke! Cette repartition des taches de direction peut etre plus ou moins formalisee ; elle peut s’incarner dans la constitution d’equipes de direction ou bien s’ouvrir a une delegation plus systematique des responsabilites et une implication plus forte des enseignants. Chef d’etablissement : une profession en mutation.

Quelle que soit l’autonomie dont jouit l’etablissement, et quelle que soit l’amplitude de cette distribution des responsabilites, le chef d’etablissement reste dans une grande majorite des cas celui a qui incombe la plus grande part de pouvoirs dans l’ecole. Des responsabilites accrues, une fonction plus strategique. La fonction de chef d’etablissement a connu des evolutions importantes au cours des decennies passees dans tous les pays de l’OCDE : de quelques responsabilites supplementaires assumees par un enseignant, elle est devenue (ou tend a devenir) une fonction a part entiere, d’abord caracterisee par une responsabilite administrative accrue, puis de plus en plus concernee aussi par des taches d’ordre pedagogique. D’une facon generale, le role du chef d’etablissement evolue vers une conception du metier plus systemique , visant a faire de l’etablissement une organisation apprenante et privilegiant le pilotage a l’administration. Habits! Dans certains pays, le fait de definir des strategies a long terme et d’en garantir la reussite fait officiellement partie des attributions du chef d’etablissement (Suede, Angleterre, Ecosse, Irlande et Irlande du Nord).

Les chefs d’etablissements sont donc censes developper une attitude plus strategique, supposant une certaine competence dans la manipulation de donnees tres diverses, en particulier les resultats des tests standardises. Write School! Ils sont egalement supposes savoir mieux communiquer sur leur etablissement, potentiellement pour le « vendre » a une clientele moins captive que par le passe, et en tout etat de cause savoir mieux se positionner dans un environnement plus concurrentiel (Pont et al. Study Essay! , 2008). Sous l’effet conjugue de l’autonomie plus large des etablissements et de l’obligation accrue de rendre des comptes, leur charge de travail s’est considerablement alourdie et complexifiee. How To Write A High School Lab Report Kinetics! Le caractere cumulatif des exigences externes peut se traduire par une fragmentation excessive des taches qui nuit a la coherence globale de l’activite et sape la capacite des etablissements a evoluer. Habits Essay In College! La concurrence potentielle entre des modes de management anciens et nouveaux et des formes d’apprentissage organisationnel constitue un frein a l’implementation des reformes et au changement (Mulford, 2003). Selon Barzano (2011), les chefs d’etablissement doivent agir dans un cadre qui est de plus en plus influence par les politiques internationales, tout en tenant compte des particularites nationales et locales. For College Application! Ils sont les agents principaux de cette articulation entre le niveau global et le niveau local ( vernacular globalization ou glocalization ). Study Essay! Les idees globales doivent etre recontextualisees et remodelees en fonction des histoires locales et des relations sociales. Des tensions entre administration et pedagogie. Dans un grand nombre de pays, les chefs d’etablissement disposent d’une veritable responsabilite pedagogique (Dutercq, 2006). Writing Company Best Resume! Cette dimension pedagogique de leur fonction, bien que sujet a debat en France, est reconnue comme une evolution necessaire par les milieux scientifiques et politiques.

Il s’agit de savoir accueillir des populations d’eleves tres diverses, de mettre en ?uvre des programmes plus propices a l’integration de ces populations, de proposer des activites permettant une demarche plus personnalisee et privilegiant un apprentissage actif plus autonome (AFAE, 2010). Habits In College! Il s’agit surtout de favoriser « l’apprentissage organisationnel », c’est-a-dire de « donner aux etablissements les moyens d’obtenir de bonnes performances et de s’ameliorer en permanence », en vue d’ameliorer les resultats des eleves (Elmore, 2008). En d’autres termes, le chef d’etablissement est appele a devenir « le leader de l’apprentissage, charge de creer des communautes professionnelles » et doit integrer des methodes d’evaluation et de valorisation professionnelles plus elaborees. Il est cense jouer un role plus actif dans le pilotage de l’enseignement : « suivre et evaluer les performances des enseignants, conduire et organiser des activites de mentorat et de soutien, gerer l’evolution professionnelle des enseignants et orchestrer le travail en equipe et le travail pedagogique en groupe » (Pont et al. Writing University! , 2008). 14 pays, sur les 22 participant a l’enquete de l’OCDE sur la direction des etablissements, signalent l’existence de dispositions officielles faisant de l’evaluation des enseignants une responsabilite importante des chefs d’etablissement. Essay In College! Ces dispositions varient de tres importantes (Slovenie) a tres faibles (Chili), et sont le plus souvent integrees a un cadre d’evaluation plus general visant a renforcer la qualite. An Essay For Me Hour! Les objectifs se repartissent de facon assez equilibree « entre evaluation, estimation des performances, planification du perfectionnement professionnel et base pour les promotions ». In College! L’entretien annuel avec le chef d’etablissement est une pratique courante, couplee ou non a d’autres methodes telles que l’observation en classe et l’examen des documents prepares par l’enseignant (plans de cours, donnees sur les resultats des eleves, examens par les pairs, auto-evaluations, etc.) (Pont et al. Best Resume! , 2008). En France, ou le degre d’autonomie des etablissements est moindre, l’intervention plus importante des chefs d’etablissement dans l’activite des enseignants ne laisse pas indifferent. Habits! La liberte pedagogique des enseignants est toujours affirmee et mise en avant par les organisations enseignantes pour refuser une plus grande implication des chefs d’etablissement au niveau pedagogique.

En effet, deux discours s’affrontent (Hassani Meuret, 2010) : le discours critique : il y a un risque de deprofessionnalisation des enseignants, les enseignants sont « proletarises » et demoralises par la perte de sens de leur metier. Of Essay! Ils refusent l’application de « l’ideologie neoliberale » a l’ecole. Essay In College! le discours modernisateur : les enseignants deviennent des praticiens reflexifs et sont engages dans une dynamique collective au sein de l’etablissement. Essay Writing University Level! L’Etat est un Etat regulateur et evaluateur. Des traditions nationales profondement ancrees. Les manieres de recruter les chefs d’etablissement restent marquees par les traditions nationales ; elles mettent au jour des relations complexes entre direction et enseignement. Study! Ils sont frequemment recrutes parmi les enseignants et entrent dans la fonction a l’apogee d’une carriere d’enseignement, meme si c’est moins vrai en Angleterre et que ce n’est plus une obligation en France. Le concours de recrutement est tres centralise en France et en Italie, le postulat etant qu’un bon leader sera bon quel que soit l’etablissement dans lequel il officie. Writing Joke! En Angleterre, les chefs d’etablissements repondent a des annonces dans un journal specialise, ils passent ensuite des tests avec des criteres qui varient d’un poste a l’autre ; la connaissance du contexte local s’avere un atout important.

Au Portugal, le chef d’etablissement est elu pour une duree de quatre ans par une assemblee mixte comprenant entre autres des enseignants ; s’il n’est pas reelu, il redevient enseignant. Study Habits Essay In College! Contrairement a l’Italie et la France, le concept de mutation n’existe pas en Angleterre ni au Portugal (Barzano, 2011). Les responsabilites du chef d’etablissement et le niveau d’autonomie dont il dispose varient fortement d’un pays a l’autre, mais aussi parfois d’un etablissement a l’autre. How To Lab Report Kinetics! Ses attributions sont en effet plus ou moins reglementees. Study Habits! Si le Royaume-Uni dispose d’un cadre professionnel tres elabore et detaille, la legislation en Autriche demeure plus evasive. Writing Company Toronto Best! Dans les pays nordiques, a l’exclusion de la Suede, en Belgique flamande et aux Pays-Bas, le cadre legislatif est quasiment inexistant (Pont et al. Habits! , 2008).

« En Finlande, le chef d’etablissement est un Forestandare – c’est-a-dire celui qui represente l’etablissement. Elements! Au Danemark, il est l’Inspektor, celui qui supervise. Habits! En Suede, le chef d’etablissement est celui qui detient les plus hautes responsabilites dans les ecoles confessionnelles, et il porte le titre de Rektor depuis la fin du XIIIe siecle. Writing Application Joke! Au Royaume-Uni, les chefs d’etablissement sont des head teachers. Study! » (Pont et al. An Essay For Me Hour! , 2008). Dans de nombreux pays, les chefs d’etablissement sont consideres comme des primus inter-pares , c’est-a-dire des enseignants qui se distinguent des autres par le nombre de responsabilites qu’ils assument. Study Habits In College! En France et en Angleterre, ils sont les superieurs hierarchiques des enseignants, mais pas en Italie ni au Portugal (Barzano, 2011). Resume! Ils remplissent egalement tres souvent des fonctions d’enseignement, en particulier dans les ecoles primaires et dans les etablissements ou les effectifs sont peu importants : c’est le cas en Angleterre, en Autriche, en Belgique (flamande et francophone), en Ecosse, en Espagne, en France, en Irlande et en Nouvelle-Zelande par exemple (Pont et al. Habits Essay In College! , 2008).

En France, le role du chef d’etablissement a ete redefini avec la creation en 1985 des Etablissements publics locaux d’enseignement (EPLE), notamment pour ce qui concerne le domaine pedagogique. How To Kinetics! Avec l’autonomie croissante des etablissements, les prerogatives de l’inspection diminuent. Habits Essay In College! Le chef d’etablissement joue alors un role de regulateur des activites de son etablissement (Hassani, 2007). University! Il faut attendre la loi d’orientation de 1989 pour que les chefs d’etablissement se voient attribuer davantage de pouvoirs concernant notamment la relation avec les partenaires exterieurs, la vie scolaire, l’orientation et l’insertion des eleves (Dutercq, 2006). Study Habits! Le referentiel du metier de chef d’etablissement (2000) precise que, s’il lui revient de conduire la politique pedagogique et educative de l’etablissement et s’il est le garant de l’efficacite pedagogique, ses responsabilites concernent malgre tout la peripherie de l’acte pedagogique (l’orientation, l’evaluation, l’assiduite) et non son c?ur dont l’evaluation revient a l’inspecteur pedagogique regional (Hassani Meuret, 2010). Des contextes locaux qui influent egalement sur l’activite des chefs d’etablissement. Outre les caracteristiques propres a la population scolaire accueillie (ses origines sociales en particulier), les criteres les plus discriminants sont lies a l’ecole meme : sa situation geographique, sa taille, le fait qu’elle soit ou non publique, le type de formation propose et le niveau d’enseignement concerne. Dans les ecoles primaires, le directeur est generalement plus proche des enseignants et des eleves, plus implique dans les questions d’ordre pedagogique, alors que dans les grands etablissements secondaires, son role en matiere de pedagogie est plus indirect, il s’appuie davantage sur les instances et les professeurs principaux par exemple (Leithwood, 2005).

Une profession qui doit devenir plus attrayante. Une profession vieillissante, surmenee et peu valorisee. D’apres les travaux de l’OCDE (Pont et al. Writing Level! , 2008), l’effectif des chefs d’etablissement peut varier de 250 a 55000 personnes selon les pays, et se situe majoritairement en deca de 5000. In College! Cet effectif reduit, issu essentiellement des ecoles primaires, plus nombreuses, compose une profession vieillissante et peu feminisee. Essay Strategies! Dans des pays tels que la Coree, la Belgique (Communaute francaise) et le Danemark, plus de 75% des chefs d’etablissements sont ages de plus de 50 ans. Study Essay In College! Les femmes chefs d’etablissement, sur-representees dans les ecoles primaires, sont en revanche sous-representees dans les etablissements secondaires dans une grande majorite de pays. 15 pays, sur les 22 qui ont participe au programme de l’OCDE, signalent un nombre de candidatures inferieur au nombre de postes publies. Writing Company! Les motifs evoques pour expliquer la desaffection sont : « l’image negative associee a ce poste, la surcharge de travail et de responsabilites, l’absence de preparation et de formation, ainsi que le niveau insuffisant des traitements et remunerations. Study Habits! » (Pont et al. Writing Referencing! , 2008). Le nombre et la variete des exigences de la profession soulevent en effet de nombreuses questions. Study Habits Essay! En Angleterre, les chefs d’etablissement effectuent des horaires hebdomadaires souvent longs (54h dans le primaire et 65h dans le secondaire en moyenne) ; 61% d’entre eux evoquent un desequilibre entre leur vie professionnelle et leur vie privee (PricewaterhouseCoopers, 2007).

En Nouvelle Zelande, les reformes recentes en matiere de leadership ont eu pour effet d’allonger de 10 heures par semaine le temps de travail des chefs d’etablissement et d’accroitre les tensions entre les obligations administratives et les attributions pedagogiques dans la gestion des priorites (Wylie, 2007). Dans ce contexte de fragilite, il importe que les pays se mobilisent pour preparer la releve et saisissent cette opportunite pour recruter et former une nouvelle generation de chefs d’etablissements, mieux sensibilises aux questions de leadership. Essay Company Toronto Best Resume! Pour limiter la desaffection dont souffre cette profession, plusieurs actions peuvent etre entreprises a l’echelle meme du systeme : un renouvellement des modes de recrutement visant plus de transparence et de coherence, avec des criteres bases sur une evaluation plus diversifiee des candidats, permettant par exemple de reduire l’importance accordee a l’anciennete ; une revalorisation des baremes de remuneration ; des formations initiales et des modalites de formation continue qui soutiennent la professionnalite ; un role reconnu des organisations professionnelles de chefs d’etablissement dans la reforme de la profession et dans la dissemination des pratiques ; des perspectives d’evolution professionnelle et de mobilite mieux formalisees (Pont et al. Study Essay In College! , 2008). Une mobilisation forte des Etats et des associations professionnelles. Nombre d’associations professionnelles sont aujourd’hui mobilisees pour definir et promouvoir des outils et ressources susceptibles de soutenir la professionnalisation des chefs d’etablissement. Writing A Essay For College Joke! La creation en 2010 de l’ Australian Institute for in college, Teaching and revision strategies, School Leadership temoigne de l’interet australien pour la promotion de l’excellence au travers de normes partagees par la profession. In College! L’association nationale americaine New Leaders accompagne les ecoles dans la mise en ?uvre de leurs politiques et de leurs pratiques de leadership, et s’appuie notamment sur le programme Urban Excellence Framework qui s’attache a disseminer ce que font les « leaders » dans les bonnes ecoles pour faire reussir leurs eleves.

Le National College for for me hour, School Leadership en Angleterre joue un role cle dans la definition du cadre reglementaire de la profession et dans la conception d’une offre de formation a l’echelle nationale. En Europe, le reseau European Qualification Network for habits, Effective School Leadership joue egalement un role cle dans la dissemination des pratiques de leadership, tandis que le reseau d’experts European Policy Network on Writing a essay for college application joke, School Leadership , recemment cree par la Commission europeenne, cherche a developper des synergies plus etroites entre les decideurs, les chercheurs et les professionnels du leadership. Une des actions concretes pour revaloriser la profession consiste a concevoir un referentiel metier . Habits Essay In College! Ces referentiels servent a fixer les caracteristiques, taches et responsabilites des chefs d’etablissement efficaces. University Level! Ils jettent les bases d’une demarche coherente de recrutement, de formation et d’evaluation des chefs d’etablissements, et cherchent a definir les principaux domaines de responsabilite, sans evacuer les elements propres au contexte local et en y incluant potentiellement les responsabilites des enseignants (Ingvarson et al. Study Habits Essay In College! , 2006). Plusieurs pays se sont d’ores et deja dotes de tels referentiels : c’est le cas en Ecosse, en Irlande du Nord, aux Pays-Bas, au Danemark et en Nouvelle-Zelande. Writing A Essay For College Application! Ces referentiels doivent miser sur l’engagement plus que sur la conformite pour devenir des principes reellement structurants pour la profession. Study Habits In College! Il importe donc qu’ils soient concus et mis a jour avec les chefs d’etablissements eux memes, comme c’est le cas aux Pays-Bas (Pont et al. Strategies! , 2008).

Comment recruter, former et accompagner les chefs d’etablissement ? Jusqu’a recemment, peu de systemes educatifs exigeaient une qualification pour entrer dans la carriere et la formation initiale, quand elle existait, n’articulait pas toujours efficacement les contenus de formation avec les realites du metier. Study Habits In College! Recemment, les reformes engagees dans plusieurs pays ont fait une priorite explicite de la formation et du developpement professionnel des chefs d’etablissements, en rapport avec l’amelioration des performances des etablissements et des resultats des eleves (Schleicher, 2012). L’existence de dispositifs de formation exerce une influence sur les pratiques professionnelles des chefs d’etablissement ; ces dispositifs impactent indirectement la reussite des eleves en favorisant de meilleures dynamiques d’enseignement et d’apprentissage, comme le demontre l’etude de Darling-Hammond (2007) sur les programmes de formation initiale identifies comme « exemplaires ». Writing Company Toronto Resume! L’enquete longitudinale realisee sur 35 etablissements suedois par Blossing Ekholm (2005), met en evidence l’impact de la formation des chefs d’etablissement sur le developpement du travail collaboratif des enseignants. In College! D’autres etudes montrent que les etablissements s’ameliorent plus vite quand leurs leaders ont beneficie d’une certification (Schleicher, 2012). Si les enjeux strategiques sont relativement convergents, les dispositifs deployes peuvent varier considerablement en fonction des contextes nationaux et locaux, et etre plus ou moins axes sur le recrutement, la formation et le perfectionnement des chefs d’etablissement. Essay Level! En matiere de recrutement, plusieurs pays cherchent aujourd’hui a encourager les vocations en amont , en identifiant les enseignants presentant des aptitudes au leadership lors des evaluations individuelles, ou bien en proposant des seances d’initiation a tous ceux qui manifesteraient un interet pour ce type d’activite (Schleicher, 2012). Les dispositions relatives a la formation initiale des chefs d’etablissement sont generalement centralisees dans les pays dotes de systemes educatifs eux-memes centralises (Allemagne, France, Hong Kong et Singapour). Study Habits Essay! A l’autre extremite, en Nouvelle-Zelande et aux Pays-Bas, les etablissements disposent d’une forte autonomie et de nombreux programmes de formation sont proposes par les entreprises locales (Mulford, 2003).

Dans la majorite des pays, des mesures d’accompagnement existent. Write For Me! Les evaluations des chefs d’etablissement, qu’elles relevent des autorites locales, de l’inspectorat ou des conseils d’etablissement, sont moins systematiques que les programmes de formation initiale et peu homogenes d’un pays a l’autre. Study Habits Essay In College! Certains pays privilegient l’examen des performances des etablissements, d’autres s’attachent davantage aux resultats des eleves et a la maniere dont ces resultats sont utilises pour progresser (Schleicher, 2012). Diverses formes d’accompagnement telles que le mentorat et le tutorat, qui ont fait leurs preuves aupres des enseignants (Davidson Jensen, 2009), peuvent etre mises au service du developpement professionnel des chefs d’etablissement. Essay Revision! La tendance qui se dessine est de privilegier des formations en situation, sur le lieu de travail (Angleterre, France, Singapour, Afrique du Sud, etc.). Study! Des anciens chefs d’etablissement ou certains encore en activite sont impliques dans la formation, leurs savoir-faire sont sollicites (Bush, 2008). Aujourd’hui des pays tels que l’Angleterre, le Canada (Ontario), l’Irlande, l’Irlande du Nord, l’Ecosse et l’Australie (Victoria) ont opte pour une approche holistique. Essay University! Ils ont tous mis en ?uvre des programmes complexes allant de certifications initiales, a des modules et stages de formation continue en passant par des dispositifs d’accompagnement a la prise de fonction en debut de carriere. Study Habits In College! Ces programmes sont souvent integres a des strategies plus globales pour ameliorer l’ecole et sont generalement concues par une institution ou une organisation nationale, telle que le National College for strategies geography, School Leadership en Angleterre (Schleicher, 2012). Repartition et delegation de pouvoirs : les structures et acteurs sollicites. Des equipes de direction et conseils d’etablissement elargis.

Au sein des etablissements, plusieurs structures de gouvernance peuvent etre identifiees, allant de l’equipe de direction au conseil d’administration en passant par divers autres conseils exercant des responsabilites plus ou moins fortes. Dans leurs travaux sur les etablissements scolaires anglais, Ranson et al. Habits! (2005) identifient quatre types de structures de gouvernance qui se distinguent par les finalites et responsabilites, le rapport de forces entre le chef d’etablissement et le(s) conseil(s), et le niveau de professionnalisation dont les membres font preuve dans leurs deliberations et decisions : ces structures sont enceintes de deliberation, lieux de debats ; elles sont antichambres de consultation, le pouvoir decisionnaire restant la prerogative du chef d’etablissement ; elles agissent en tant que comite executif et sont juridiquement responsables de l’etablissement ; elles ont les fonctions d’un veritable organe de direction, avec un chef d’etablissement considere comme un simple membre. Les equipes de direction en tant que telles sont plus ou moins dotees en personnels, selon le nombre d’eleves scolarises dans l’etablissement. How To Write A High Lab Report Kinetics! Les chefs d’etablissement sont souvent secondes par des adjoints dont les attributions se concentrent sur certaines taches precises d’administration et de gestion. Habits In College! Dans des pays tels que le Chili et l’Angleterre, les equipes de direction sont composees d’une diversite de profils, permettant de prendre en charge de facon explicite la multiplicite des responsabilites en termes de budget, de ressources humaines et d’organisation pedagogique (Pont et al. University Referencing! , 2008).

Dans certaines configurations, rares cependant, les equipes de direction travaillent de maniere repartie sur plusieurs etablissements, avec ou sans le soutien d’une structure exterieure. Study! C’est le cas de l’experience menee par une municipalite finlandaise, rapportee par Hargreaves et al. Essay Writing University Referencing! (2008) : il a ete demande a cinq chefs d’etablissement d’occuper une fonction de coordination a l’echelle du « district scolaire » pour un tiers de leur temps de travail et d’integrer l’equipe de direction municipale. Study Habits! Le leadership a ainsi ete redistribue entre la municipalite et les etablissements ; les activites des chefs d’etablissement ont trouve un equilibre entre leur etablissement, les quatre autres etablissements et le district, alors que la reconfiguration des pouvoirs au sein des etablissements a ouvert de nouvelles perspectives en matiere d’apprentissage mutuel, chacun pouvant se specialiser dans un domaine d’expertise. Dans la plupart des pays de l’OCDE, les etablissements sont dotes de structures de gouvernance auxquelles sont associees les parents, les eleves, les enseignants et les membres de la communaute. Of Essay Meaning! Ces conseils d’etablissement peuvent intervenir a trois niveaux : direction, gestion et strategie de l’etablissement. Study Habits! Leur role varie considerablement selon les pays, allant « d’une simple fonction consultative sur des questions de moindre importance a une mission plus vaste de developpement de la strategie de l’etablissement ». Essay Revision Strategies Geography! Dans certains pays, les responsabilites de ces conseils d’etablissement sont importantes, ils sont souvent partie prenante dans la nomination du chef d’etablissement (Belgique flamande, Irlande, Irlande du Nord, Nouvelle-Zelande, Danemark). Study Essay In College! Dans d’autres pays, elles sont a contrario relativement faibles et leur role reste purement consultatif (Espagne, Portugal). Write An Essay! Enfin, certains pays ont opte pour une approche a la fois decentralisee et responsabilisante : c’est le cas au Pays-Bas par exemple, ou les conseils d’etablissements, composes dans des proportions variees de professionnels et de benevoles, sont au final responsables de l’etablissement (Pont et al. Habits Essay! , 2008).

Au Pays de Galles, la decision la plus importante prise par le conseil d’administration est la nomination du chef d’etablissement. A Essay For College Application Joke! En Nouvelle-Zelande, suite a une reforme recente, les missions des conseils d’administration ont ete elargies et leurs membres beneficient desormais d’un accompagnement et peuvent egalement suivre une formation. Habits In College! En Angleterre, tous les membres des conseils d’administration doivent etre formes (Wylie, 2007). How To Write School Lab Report! En Italie, une assemblee d’enseignants a des pouvoirs deliberatifs qui vient contrebalancer le pouvoir du chef d’etablissement. Habits In College! Par contre, les autorites locales ne participent pas directement a la vie de l’etablissement (Barzano, 2011). Quelles que soient les configurations et les attributions de ces structures, les recherches s’accordent le plus souvent pour en signaler les faiblesses suivantes : des missions peu claires , assorties de responsabilites souvent trop nombreuses ou trop importantes pour des personnels partiellement benevoles ; des tensions frequentes entre le chef d’etablissement et les differents conseils ; une participation et une implication souvent limitees des membres, liees en partie a un manque de competences (Pont et al. University Level Referencing! , 2008). Habits! Peu d’etudes probantes permettent toutefois de mesurer l’impact de ces conseils sur l’amelioration des etablissements scolaires, meme en Angleterre ou le leadership beneficie d’importantes ressources pour se deployer. Essay University Level! De meme, la question des synergies entre equipe de direction et equipe enseignante reste complexe a mettre en ?uvre en France (AFAE, 2010). Les enseignants sont de plus en plus amenes a exercer des responsabilites officielles en matiere d’encadrement, meme si celles-ci restent le plus souvent mal definies statutairement. Study Habits Essay! Il n’est pas rare que les associations professionnelles soutiennent activement cet elargissement des activites enseignantes (Bangs MacBeath, 2012). En Nouvelle-Zelande, les « enseignants specialistes » apportent un soutien pedagogique a leurs collegues.

En Belgique, les enseignants du secondaire peuvent reserver 3% de leurs heures d’enseignement au maximum a des fonctions pedagogiques specifiques. Write An Essay Hour! En Angleterre, des postes nouveaux ont ete crees : les middle teachers coordonnent les enseignements disciplinaires ; les learning managers analysent les performances et preconisent des interventions ciblees ; les advanced skills teachers fonctionnent comme des mentors aupres de collegues novices (Pont et al. Study Habits In College! , 2008). La posture du praticien reflexif , encouragee dans plusieurs pays, contribue a une forme de distribution du leadership. Elements Of Essay Meaning! Au Japon, il existe des adjoints formels et des adjoints informels. Essay! En Finlande, les enseignants sont en posture de recherche permanente, proposent des plans de formation qui sont negocies en fonction du projet d’etablissement. Essay Strategies Geography! Au Royaume-Uni et en Suede, on habits essay in college, favorise la circulation des savoirs et le soutien professionnel (Laderriere, 2008). Parallelement a ces responsabilites intermediaires, occupees de facon plus ou moins formelle, emergent d’autres fonctions plus etroitement associees au pilotage de l’etablissement.

C’est le cas, par exemple en Angleterre, des assistant head-teachers qui sont integres a l’equipe de direction. Elements Meaning! C’est aussi le cas en Australie, avec des teacher leaders qui animent des equipes ou sont responsables d’une matiere ou d’un niveau comme les coordonnateurs disciplinaires en France. Aux Etats-Unis, les teacher leaders peuvent etre appeles a jouer un role cle dans l’implementation d’une reforme , en servant d’interface entre les autorites locales chargees de l’education et les etablissements. Study Essay! Leur proximite avec les personnels de l’etablissement leur procure un certain avantage pour relayer les attentes de l’autorite locale, tandis que cette derniere parvient, par leur intermediaire, a influer davantage sur les pratiques pedagogiques de l’etablissement (Firestone Martinez, 2009). Le « teacher leadership » mobilise aujourd’hui des chercheurs du monde entier, comme en temoigne le projet International Teacher Leadership (ITL) mene par l’universite de Cambridge. Writing University! L’existence d’associations telles que le Teacher Leadership Exploratory Consortium aux Etats-Unis, rassemblant a la fois les institutions de recherche et les syndicats professionnels, est egalement une illustration de l’interet porte au leadership enseignant. Le theme n’est pourtant pas nouveau. Study Habits! Nombre de recherches americaines ont mis en evidence, des les annees 1990, la combinaison fructueuse entre leadership des enseignants, collaboration des enseignants et renforcement des capacites ( capacity building ) au niveau des etablissements. Writing For College Application! Le teacher leader peut etre investi de responsabilites formelles ou informelles ; dans tous les cas, il fait preuve d’une forte capacite a collaborer. Au Royaume-Uni, le concept de « teacher leader » a connu une destinee plus chaotique, et s’est repandu, depuis une dizaine d’annees, plus ou moins en marge des principaux travaux sur le leadership scolaire. Study! Cette difficulte a acquerir une legitimite s’explique a la fois par un certain flou conceptuel, qui permet mal d’apprehender les frontieres entre leadership enseignant et formation continue des enseignants, et par la remise en cause potentielle de formes de leadership plus conventionnelles ou la repartition des roles est plus explicite (Harris, 2003).

4. Si la plupart des recherches sur ces responsabilites des enseignants en soulignent l’importance dans le cadre d’un leadership distribue, visant un renforcement des capacites de direction strategique, l’exercice de ces responsabilites demeure une pratique mal definie, caracterisee par un investissement souvent faible en termes de formation et de valorisation des personnels concernes (Pont et al. Essay Company Resume! , 2008). Les travaux menes dans le cadre de l’ International Teacher Leadership project se concentrent sur les moyens a mettre en ?uvre pour soutenir les enseignants leaders de l’innovation : 15 pays participants et 15 recommandations au final, permettant de discerner quels programmes seraient efficaces dans cette perspective et comment les enseignants peuvent constituer des points d’appui pour l’implementation des reformes (Frost, 2011). Du leadership distribue au leadership systemique ? Un horizon commun, des conceptions et pratiques diversifiees. Normand (2010) distingue plusieurs modalites de leadership : transformational leadership : une action collective, impulsee par le chef d’etablissement, pour promouvoir une culture de la cooperation au sein des equipes pedagogiques ; distributed leadership : des interactions multiples, dans differents « espaces-temps » de l’etablissement scolaire, au service de la reussite des eleves ; une action concertee ou les enseignants collaborent et agissent collectivement pour ajuster, innover et changer leurs pratiques ; systemic leadership : en lien avec de nouvelles formes de gouvernance locale, concretisees par un engagement des chefs d’etablissement au dela de leur etablissement propre, qui devient l’element d’une communaute professionnelle d’apprentissage plus large. D’apres les travaux experimentaux de Spillane et al. In College! (2009), le leadership dans les etablissements scolaires etudies est effectivement distribue : il est reparti sur de multiples acteurs, que ceux-ci soient officiellement investis d’une mission de leadership ou non. Wiki Meaning! Ce peut etre des enseignants, mais aussi dans une moindre mesure des eleves. Study Essay! Mais le degre de repartition depend du type d’activite (administrative ou curriculaire par exemple) et varie d’un etablissement a l’autre. Plusieurs conceptions du leadership distribue peuvent etre identifiees. Write An Essay Hour! Dans une premiere, il correspond a la somme des interventions qui relevent de la fonction de direction ; cette conception « quantitative » va alors de pair avec des roles identifies au sein d’une organisation hierarchique. Study Habits In College! Les modalites de mise en ?uvre sont multiples mais se basent toujours sur une delegation de pouvoirs du chef d’etablissement aux gestionnaires et aux enseignants.

Dans une seconde, le leardership comme action concertee est superieur a la somme des parties. Strategies Geography! Independamment des postes ou des roles, il s’agit de mobiliser a bon escient les competences disponibles dans l’etablissement pour repondre a un besoin dans un contexte precis, et de privilegier les initiatives (Pont et al. Essay! , 2008). An Essay For Me Hour! Dans une troisieme enfin, ce ne sont pas les competences des individus qui fondent la concertation, mais les interactions et interdependances entre les personnes et les situations : « une perspective distribuee sur l’activite humaine oblige a depasser l’activite individuelle pour reflechir aux facons dont la situation materielle, culturelle et sociale la permet, l’informe et la contraint ». Study Essay In College! Autrement dit, la bonne unite d’analyse n’est ni l’acteur ni le groupe d’acteurs mais l’interaction des leaders, des affilies et leur situation respective ; une approche par les (macro) fonctions et les (micro) taches est a privilegier par rapport a une definition basee sur les roles (Spillane et al. Essay Revision Strategies! , 2008). L’examen des pratiques de repartition des fonctions de direction en Angleterre a permis de dresser une typologie des differentes strategies deployees dans les etablissements scolaires (PricewaterhouseCoopers, 2007) : dans le modele traditionnel , frequent dans les ecoles primaires, l’equipe de direction est composee d’un directeur seconde par un ou plusieurs adjoints et par des enseignants qualifies formellement impliques ; dans le modele gere, plus frequent dans les ecoles secondaires et plus flexible, la structure de direction peut inclure un personnel experimente et encourage l’adoption de methodes plus innovantes ; le modele a instances multiples , variante du modele gere, combine une grande diversite de profils dans l’equipe de direction et un mode de fonctionnement qui s’appuie sur des instances plus nombreuses, permettant de faciliter l’acces des familles a des services d’aide varies ; le modele federe se caracterise par une collaboration inter-etablissements, avec la mise en place potentielle d’un organe exterieur de direction ; le modele de direction a l’echelle du systeme educatif, avec des chefs d’etablissement qui interviennent dans des structures susceptibles d’influer sur le systeme educatif meme. Pour Barrere (2007), le leadership de l’etablissement ne doit pas rester cantonne aux bureaux de l’equipe de direction : il est necessaire de « mettre en conflit » a l’interieur de l’etablissement des positions pedagogiques ainsi que des problemes de gestion de classe. Study Essay! Les reponses doivent etre trouvees collectivement. Bouvier (2007) affirme lui aussi l’importance du travail collectif au niveau des enseignants, qui favorise la reflexivite. Strategies Geography! Dans ce cadre, le projet pedagogique et le conseil pedagogique prennent tout leur sens.

Pour lui, le pilotage pedagogique doit etre partage dans l’etablissement entre les enseignants et les cadres afin de se fixer des objectifs communs portant sur les acquis des eleves, leur savoir-faire, leurs competences. Study! Les instances existantes n’ont de valeur que si elles sont mobilisees dans un esprit de partage des responsabilites. C’est aussi le point de vue defendu par Pair (2007) qui distingue differents types de pilotage : hierarchique et administratif (controle de conformite de l’application des regles) ; corporatiste (par les enseignants, mais qui exclut de fait les usagers) ; par objectifs et resultats (en coherence avec l’esprit de la Lolf). Elements! Il preconise plutot un pilotage concerte, bati sur le dialogue entre les differents acteurs. Habits Essay! « Les relations avec les usagers doivent se fonder sur la responsabilite envers eux » mais cette responsabilite ne peut porter que sur les resultats. Writing Level! « L’obligation de moyens ne suffit plus, mais l’obligation de resultats ne peut etre totale ». Study Habits Essay! Il faut fixer des objectifs, evaluer des resultats, apporter des corrections avec les partenaires (dont les parents). Essay Writing Company! De meme, il convient de developper une culture commune (chefs d’etablissement et enseignants) dans une « societe apprenante ». Essay In College! C’est ce qu’il appelle une « regulation par le sens ». Les debats du colloque 2010 de l’AFAE montrent la necessite d’avoir une culture et des valeurs communes, qui sont rarement explicitees, et qui patissent du fosse existant entre le pedagogique et l’administratif. Wiki! Quenet plaide pour une presence accrue des inspecteurs dans les etablissements et pour une politique de gestion des ressources humaines plus efficace, associant les autorites locales et les chefs d’etablissement. Essay In College! Il appelle aussi a la facilitation des relations (horizontales et verticales) et du partage d’informations au sein des etablissements. Level! A cet egard, la creation des conseils pedagogiques et le recours aux ENT peut s’averer positif. Study Essay! Il est possible aussi d’imaginer des « fonctions intermediaires » pour dynamiser la concertation.

Le chef d’etablissement doit etre un « leader a l’expertise reconnue. Essay Best Resume! Il doit etre creatif, flexible s’adaptant au contexte local pour creer les conditions d’une confiance reciproque par un management participatif et une evaluation collective et partagee des resultats ». Study Habits! L’evaluation et la formation sont des elements cles de ce type de leadership (Quenet, 2010). Pour van Zanten (2010), le modele « charismatique », centre sur le pouvoir du chef d’etablissement, est trop pregnant en France, au detriment du modele « managerial », qui privilegie les competences aux qualites personnelles. Essay! Si le rapprochement necessaire entre direction et enseignants plaide pour l’adoption de ce dernier, ce modele se heurte a une double resistance en France : le fait que le pays ne se soit pas totalement affranchi de son systeme bureaucratique et le fait que les enseignants cherchent a preserver une autonomie individuelle qui ne soutient pas necessairement la progression de tous les eleves. Essay! L’autonomie doit devenir « collective » pour peser a la fois sur le fonctionnement des etablissements mais aussi sur la reussite des eleves. Le leadership distribue semble faire consensus. Plusieurs travaux de recherche montrent que la repartition des fonctions de direction est necessaire pour que les etablissements soient capables d’ameliorer leurs resultats et que l’impact est particulierement marque dans les etablissements qui accueillent une population scolaire en difficulte (Leithwood et al. Hour! , 2010). Study Essay! Pour certains, la participation active et collective des personnels au fonctionnement de l’etablissement constitue la garantie de son developpement comme organisation apprenante ; et c’est en tant qu’organisation apprenante que l’etablissement s’ameliore et reussit (Elmore, 2008). Mais d’une facon generale, peu de recherches ont veritablement interroge cette influence. Writing A Essay For College Application Joke! Pour Bennett et al. Study Habits! (2003), qui ont realise une analyse exhaustive de la litterature, l’impact du leadership distribue sur l’ecole reste plus indicatif que probant. How To Write School Lab Report! Anderson et al. Habits! (2009) et Hallinger Heck (2010) estiment que meme s’il est difficile de trouver un lien entre un modele particulier de leadership distribue et l’amelioration des resultats des etudiants, il semble que le fait de partager le leadership au sein de l’etablissement soit un facteur favorisant l’apprentissage des eleves.

D’apres Leithwood et al. Writing University Level! (2006), les responsabilites du chef d’etablissement se trouvent etendues et non pas diminuees par l’influence des autres acteurs. Habits! Ils estiment aussi qu’ une coordination explicite des pratiques est plus efficace qu’une repartition plus informelle , meme s’il ne s’agit pas d’exclure totalement de s’appuyer sur les competences plus que sur les postes. An Essay! Dumay (2009) confirme qu’un mode de gestion directif, avec des objectifs clairs et des ressources adequates, influencent davantage la reussite des eleves qu’un mode de coordination centree sur des normes locales. Les etablissements de petite taille, de loin les plus nombreux, sont ceux qui beneficient le plus de ces pratiques de leadership distribue. Study Habits! On y observe souvent une double charge et des conflits d’interet entre ce qui releve du pilotage et de la gestion d’une part et ce qui touche a la pedagogie d’autre part.

Agir en priorite sur ces conflits d’interet represente une bonne pratique (Ewington et al. A Essay For College Application Joke! , 2008). Les travaux de Frost, dans le cadre du projet International Teacher Leadership , confirment que les enseignants qui exercent des responsabilites « pedagogiques », en lien avec les programmes, l’evaluation et le comportement des eleves au sein de leur etablissement, dans un cadre qui beneficie du soutien des autorites nationales et ou regionales, influencent positivement la qualite des interventions pedagogiques de l’ensemble des enseignants, qui se repercute alors sur les resultats des eleves (Frost, 2011). Quel cout du leadership distribue ? En Angleterre, le developpement du leadership distribue a pu avoir pour corollaire une augmentation de la masse salariale au niveau de l’equipe de direction, partiellement compensee par des economies dans d’autres domaines. Study Habits Essay In College! L’augmentation de salaire pour ceux charges de ces responsabilites supplementaires n’a pas ete systematique ; certains ont beneficie d’un allegement de leur charge d’enseignement. En Nouvelle-Zelande, chaque etablissement secondaire dispose d’un nombre d’unites de valeur a repartir entre les personnels en reconnaissance des responsabilites supplementaires qu’ils ont exercees.

En Irlande du Nord, cinq indemnites sont prevues pour recompenser les enseignants qui s’investissent sur des questions d’enseignement ou d’apprentissage : pour encadrer une matiere ou une partie du programme, pour gerer les progres globaux des eleves, pour intervenir sur le parcours scolaire des eleves de leurs collegues, pour developper les pratiques pedagogiques des autres categories de personnels. Application! Ces systemes de points constituent un moyen efficace de mobiliser des cadres intermediaires sur des fonctions de direction plus ou moins ponctuelles, en reponse a des besoins specifiques (Pont et al. In College! , 2008). Le leadership distribue ne diminue pas la charge de travail du chef d’etablissement : il lui revient d’organiser cette distribution, coordonner les personnes, encadrer le travail, etc. Write School Lab Report Kinetics! (Leithwood et al. Study Essay! , 2009). Les conditions d’un effet positif sur les apprentissages. Les recherches montrent que les chefs d’etablissement peuvent faire une difference au niveau des performances de leur etablissement et des resultats des eleves s’ils jouissent d’une plus grande autonomie dans la prise de decision (Thibert, 2011). L’etendue des pouvoirs de decision des chefs d’etablissement, variables d’un pays a l’autre comme le montrent les travaux de l’OCDE (2007), n’est toutefois pas une condition suffisante pour ameliorer l’encadrement. Essay Writing University Level Referencing! Il importe que leurs responsabilites fondamentales soient mieux definies et delimitees, et qu’elles s’integrent dans des modeles d’organisation bases sur une meilleure repartition de l’encadrement, sur des programmes de formation initiale et continue adaptes et sur un soutien effectif a tous les niveaux du systeme educatif. Certains domaines d’actions en matiere de leadership ont une plus grande incidence que d’autres sur l’enseignement et l’apprentissage. Study Habits In College! L’OCDE recense quatre types de responsabilites essentiels pour ameliorer les resultats des eleves (Pont et al. Writing Referencing! , 2008) : une volonte de promouvoir, d’evaluer et d’ameliorer la qualite des enseignants, premier facteur d’impact sur les resultats des eleves au niveau de l’etablissement ; un effort pour definir des objectifs educatifs et mettre en ?uvre pour l’etablissement des modes d’evaluation performants permettant de mesurer les performances individuelles et globales ; une utilisation strategique des ressources financieres et humaines ; un engagement de la direction au dela du perimetre de l’etablissement : collaboration avec d’autres etablissements scolaires, avec les parents, les associations, les collectivites, les services publics de sante et l’aide sociale, les entreprises locales par exemple (cf. In College! travaux de Fullan et Hargreaves). Promouvoir, evaluer et ameliorer le travail des enseignants.

Ces responsabilites peuvent etre appreciees a partir de ce qui se passe dans les etablissements, notamment en matiere de gestion des programmes scolaires, d’evaluation et de formation continue des enseignants ainsi que des collaborations existantes. Les recentes analyses basees sur les donnees de PISA mettent au jour une correlation positive entre le fait d’accorder une certaine latitude aux etablissements pour gerer les programmes d’enseignement et les resultats des eleves (OCDE, 2007 ; Goldring et al. Of Essay Meaning! , 2007). Essay! La meta-analyse de Robinson et al. Revision Strategies Geography! (2009) confirme que la supervision des programmes, via la coordination et l’harmonisation des objectifs scolaires dans l’ensemble des classes et des niveaux, peut impacter les resultats des eleves. Study Habits! Avec Marzano et al. Application Joke! (2006), l’implication directe des chefs d’etablissement dans l’elaboration et la mise en ?uvre des programmes scolaires est consideree comme l’une des pratiques d’encadrement ayant une influence significative. Evaluation et formation continue des enseignants. Les enquetes PISA montrent que les performances des eleves sont meilleures la ou les chefs d’etablissement jouent un role effectif dans les regulations pedagogiques (au niveau des cours par des observations, notamment) (Pont et al. Study Essay! , 2008). Strategies Geography! D’autres etudes montrent que l’implication du chef d’etablissement dans le feedback fait aux enseignants sur leurs pratiques et dans l’observation en classe, semble associee a de meilleurs resultats scolaires (Robinson et al. Habits! , 2009), surtout quand les enseignants sont responsabilises, a travers un suivi opere par le chef d’etablissement et des inspecteurs externes (Woessmann et al. Write School Kinetics! , 2007).

Mais ces pratiques sont rarement systematisees du fait du manque de moyens dont disposent les chefs d’etablissement et les autres cadres pour proceder a des evaluations formelles. Pour Robinson et al. Study Habits Essay In College! (2009), le developpement des activites de formation continue et de perfectionnement des enseignants reste la dimension du leadership la plus fortement correlee a de meilleurs resultats scolaires. Essay Writing University Level! Pour Leithwood et al. Habits Essay! (2006) et Marzano et al. How To Write School Lab Report Kinetics! (2006), il importe que ces programmes de perfectionnement soient completes par un soutien moins formel : la reconnaissance des realisations individuelles ainsi que la connaissance des personnes sont considerees comme des pratiques essentielles pour un encadrement efficace. Dans cette perspective, de nombreuses etudes soulignent les insuffisances des dispositifs de formation initiale et continue des enseignants (Feyfant, 2010), malgre des tentatives pour une plus forte convergence entre les besoins des etablissements et ceux des enseignants. La tendance actuelle serait au renforcement de la marge de man?uvre des etablissements avec une generalisation des activites de perfectionnement au sein de l’etablissement, auxquelles la majeure partie des enseignants participerait, et une marginalisation des formations individuelles.

De tels dispositifs permettant aux chefs d’etablissement de proposer et coordonner localement le perfectionnement utile aux enseignants, pourraient beneficier d’un transfert des budgets de formation au niveau des etablissements (Pont et al. Study! , 2008). Developpement du travail collaboratif. L’attention portee aux collaborations constitue une responsabilite de plus en plus importante des chefs d’etablissement, en particulier dans les pays du Nord de l’Europe ou le corps enseignant est habitue a de telles pratiques. Revision Strategies Geography! Le chef d’etablissement joue un role cle dans le developpement d’une culture collective au service d’une organisation apprenante en constante redefinition (Sherp Sherp, 2006 cite par Pont et al. Study Habits In College! , 2008). Essay Level Referencing! Les chefs d’etablissement consideres comme les plus performants « consacrent plus de temps a dire aux enseignants ce qu’ils pensent de leur travail et encouragent plus frequemment la reflexion avec leur personnel ». Study Habits In College! Ce sont les principes de collegialite, de responsabilites collectives et d’objectifs communs qui prevalent, ainsi que tous les processus de perfectionnement, de reflexion et d’amelioration de la qualite. Essay University Level Referencing! L’enseignement n’est plus l’affaire d’un individu isole dans sa classe, mais s’entend comme un ensemble d’activites collegiales, transparentes et concertees (Leithwood et al. Study! , 2006 ; Stoll Louis, 2007). En ce qui concerne la France, Hassani Meuret (2010) distinguent quatre types d’etablissement en fonction de leur facon d’apprehender la cooperation entre les enseignants et l’intervention du chef d’etablissement dans la regulation de leur travail : type 1 (29,5% des etablissements) : « fortement collectif et fortement regule » . Essay Writing University! Le chef d’etablissement et les enseignants discutent des performances des eleves, des moyens de les ameliorer, prennent des decisions pedagogiques. Study Essay! Il existe des rencontres informelles avec le chef d’etablissement assez frequentes, etc.; type 2 (15,4 %) : « individuel / laissez-faire » . Writing A Essay For College Joke! Il y a peu de collectif et peu d’intervention du chef d’etablissement ; type 3 (48,3 %) : « moyennement collectif et moyennement regule » . In College! C’est de loin le type le plus represente.

Il existe des reunions par classe ou par discipline environ deux fois par an Writing application ; les chefs d’etablissement discutent quelquefois avec les enseignants. Study Habits In College! Il y a peu de rencontres informelles entre la direction et les enseignants ; type 4 (6,8 %) : « individuel / interventionniste » . Writing A Essay For College Application Joke! Il n’y a pratiquement pas de collectif mais les chefs d’etablissement rencontrent assez souvent les enseignants (trois fois par an) pour parler du projet d’etablissement ou de l’etablissement de facon generale. Le resultat de cette enquete confirme la these d’une nouvelle professionnalite : la cooperation entre les enseignants est correlee avec l’engagement de chef d’etablissement dans la regulation des activites des enseignants. Si plus des deux tiers des chefs d’etablissement se sentent legitimes pour intervenir de facon significative aupres des enseignants dans le but de favoriser les progres chez les eleves, les enseignants seraient, d’apres une enquete syndicale, 70% a le refuser. Study Essay In College! Ceci expliquerait en partie le « malaise » des chefs d’etablissement comme celui des enseignants. Writing Company Toronto! Hassani Meuret (2010) plaident pour une « conjugaison du modele de la communaute professionnelle et de la regulation par le chef d’etablissement » : « Un cercle vertueux peut s’enclencher, dans lequel le chef d’etablissement favorise une cooperation entre les enseignants d’ou emerge un ethos collectif au nom duquel le chef d’etablissement peut reguler l’activite de ses enseignants et ainsi eloigner le spectre du petit chef ». Cette double culture (cooperation et regulation) est a construire en interne et en externe (Bouvier, 2007) et necessite une nouvelle culture de l’evaluation (Normand, 2007). Definir des objectifs et promouvoir des modes d’evaluation performants. Differents cadres d’evaluation peuvent etre convoques aujourd’hui par les chefs d’etablissements : des mecanismes externes, tels que les tests standardises nationaux et internationaux et les actions menees par l’Inspection et des mecanismes internes bases sur les indicateurs de resultats des eleves et sur l’auto-evaluation des etablissements (Thibert, 2011).

Deux tiers des pays membres de l’OCDE disposent d’une reglementation stipulant que les etablissements doivent etre inspectes regulierement et/ou mener des auto-evaluations. Study In College! Une proportion equivalente d’etablissements dispose d’une evaluation standardisee pour l’enseignement obligatoire. Certaines etudes empiriques montrent que ces mecanismes de responsabilisation, utilises de facon constructive dans le cadre d’une demarche de planification, sont essentiels pour ameliorer les resultats des eleves, en particulier dans les etablissements accueillant une population scolaire en difficulte. A Essay For College Application Joke! D’autres soulignent les difficultes d’apprehension et d’interpretation auxquelles peuvent se heurter les chefs d’etablissements insuffisamment sensibilises aux enjeux strategiques de l’evaluation (Pont et al. In College! , 2008). L’etude de cas realisee par Huber et al. Company Toronto! (2008) dans les ecoles anglaises montre comment les donnees de l’evaluation peuvent d’une part inciter l’equipe de direction et le personnel enseignant a se mobiliser pour ameliorer les performances de l’ecole et d’autre part peuvent etre utilisees pour elaborer des strategies d’apprentissage personnalisees. Une exploitation combinee et transparente des indicateurs concernant les eleves, les enseignants et les etablissements peut impacter positivement la reussite des eleves (Woessmann et al. Study Habits In College! , 2007). Writing Toronto Best! Dans 19 pays membres de l’OCDE, les chefs d’etablissement s’appuient a la fois sur les donnees d’evaluation des eleves et des etablissements scolaires pour motiver leurs decisions (Pont et al. Study Habits Essay In College! , 2008) Utiliser de facon strategique les ressources humaines et financieres. Dans les pays de l’OCDE, les chefs d’etablissement beneficient le plus souvent d’une grande autonomie en matiere de gestion budgetaire, mais interviennent plus rarement dans les decisions relatives au salaire des enseignants. Write For Me! 84% des eleves de 15 ans sont inscrits dans des etablissements qui decident comment sont depenses les budgets et 57% dans des etablissements qui elaborent librement leurs budgets, avec des pays tres autonomes tels que le Pays-Bas et la Nouvelle Zelande et des pays tres peu autonomes tels que l’Autriche et l’Italie.

Ils ne sont en revanche qu’un peu plus de 20% en moyenne a etre scolarises dans des etablissements qui decident librement des salaires de depart et des augmentations des enseignants. Habits! C’est aux Etats-Unis, aux Pays-Bas, en Suede et au Royaume-Uni que les etablissements beneficient d’un large pouvoir de decision s’agissant des remunerations. La responsabilite des etablissements dans le recrutement (et le licenciement) des enseignants est une realite dans de nombreux pays, en particulier aux Pays-Bas, en Nouvelle Zelande et aux Etats-Unis. Writing Company Best! A l’autre extremite, dans des pays tels que la Grece, l’Italie, l’Autriche, le Portugal, L’Allemagne et la France, les chefs d’etablissement n’ont qu’une faible marge de man?uvre dans ce domaine. Habits! Au Danemark ou en Suede, on writing level referencing, observe un ecart important entre le pouvoir de recruter et celui de licencier : plus de 95% des eleves de 15 ans frequentent des etablissements autonomes en matiere de recrutement, alors qu’ils sont moitie moins nombreux dans des etablissements responsables du licenciement (Pont et al. Essay! , 2008). Certaines etudes montrent que le manque d’implication de la direction dans la selection de ses personnels peut limiter sa capacite a promouvoir des conditions propices a de meilleurs resultats scolaires (Stoll Louis, 2007). Revision Strategies Geography! D’autres soutiennent que l’allocation du budget constitue un element central pour obtenir de meilleures performances a l’echelle de l’etablissement et au niveau des eleves (Robinson et al. Essay In College! , 2009). Engager la direction au dela du perimetre de l’etablissement et collaborer. Si l’etablissement est un maillon essentiel du systeme educatif par le fait qu’il se trouve a l’articulation entre les niveaux global et local, il s’inscrit dans un perimetre plus large au sein duquel il a tout interet a etablir des collaborations. Write Hour! Ces collaborations s’orientent generalement dans deux directions complementaires ou concurrentes selon le cas : avec d’autres etablissements scolaires ou bien avec des collectivites et d’autres structures educatives. Habits Essay In College! Cette « direction systemique » (ou cette mise en reseau), au fondement de la culture du changement, s’incarne dans une mise en synergie des competences internes et externes a l’etablissement, sur la base d’un objectif commun : l’amelioration des resultats des eleves (Hopkins, 2008). Les groupements d’ecoles primaires et secondaires en Belgique flamande par exemple, deployes depuis 1999, s’inscrivent dans une logique a la fois administrative et pedagogique : il s’agit d’alleger la charge administrative des chefs d’etablissement pour qu’ils se consacrent davantage a l’encadrement pedagogique, d’etoffer les services d’orientation a l’echelle d’un territoire, de developper l’usage des TIC et de rationaliser les ressources (recrutement des personnels, mise en ?uvre et exploitation des donnees d’evaluation, definition des programmes scolaires, etc.).

Malgre une grande diversite de situations et des niveaux de cooperation extremement variables, les groupements sont le plus souvent parvenus a elaborer des politiques du personnel communes et a limiter la concurrence entre les etablissements participants, alors que des formes plus informelles de cooperation pedagogique sont apparues (Day et al. An Essay! , 2008). Outre cette cooperation inter-etablissements, les chefs d’etablissement travaillent de plus en plus en collaboration avec leur environnement immediat. Study Essay! Il s’agit des lors de se rapprocher des collectivites et des associations dont les activites peuvent influer sur le travail des eleves et des enseignants. Writing For College Application! On peut citer l’exemple des extended schools , au Royaume-Uni et en Irlande du Nord, qui travaillent avec les services de protection sociale et de sante. Essay! On peut aussi mentionner la cooperation avec les communes dans les pays nordiques tels que la Finlande, ou les chefs d’etablissement d’une commune peuvent s’en partager egalement l’administration (Hargreaves et al. Essay Writing! , 2008). Study Habits! Il s’agit donc pour une organisation apprenante de « construire son identite et ses partenariats au sein de reseaux de reseaux (internes, externes et mixtes) ; tout en veillant a la coherence de l’action des reseaux qui la constituent » (Bouvier, 2007). Dans un cas, comme dans l’autre, cette cooperation presente des avantages en termes de gestion et d’administration, permettant de decharger individuellement les chefs d’etablissement d’une partie de leurs taches. For College Application Joke! Sur un plan plus relationnel, elle permet potentiellement de renforcer la cohesion entre toutes les parties soucieuses de la reussite des eleves et donc d’ameliorer la resolution de problemes . Pour autant, les chefs d’etablissement, evalues a l’aune des performances de leur propre ecole, sont souvent moins prompts a se mobiliser sur la mise en ?uvre d’un leadership systemique, par manque de temps, par manque de competences ou bien par manque d’adhesion a des injonctions de collaboration (Pont et al. Study In College! , 2008). Sur un plan plus strictement pedagogique, en Angleterre par exemple, des partenariats initialement peu structures peuvent evoluer vers des mecanismes plus formalises au service de l’amelioration de l’enseignement. Essay Writing Best Resume! Certains chefs d’etablissement s’engagent pour favoriser les innovations curriculaires, en participant par exemple a des programmes de direction systemique tels que le Consultant Leader Programme , les SIP ( School Improvement Partners ) et des NLE ( National Leaders of in college, Education ). Essay Geography! D’autres, les plus nombreux, se positionnent en « dirigeants mentors » et contribuent a identifier et diffuser les methodes pedagogiques exemplaires (Hopkins, 2008).

La plupart des liens figurant dans ce Dossier renvoient vers les fiches correspondantes de notre bibliographie collaborative , qui comprennent les references completes et, le cas echeant, des acces aux articles cites (en acces libre ou en acces payant, selon les cas et selon les abonnements electroniques souscrits par votre institution). AFAE (2010). Study Essay In College! « Equipe de direction, equipe enseignante ». Resume! Administration et education , n° 127, octobre. Study Essay In College! Anderson Stephen E., Moore Shawn Sun Jingping (2009). Writing Joke! « Positioning the Study habits essay Prinicipals in writing university level, Patterns of habits in college, School Leadership Distribution ». How To A High Kinetics! In Leithwood Kenneth, Mascall Blair Strauss Tiiu (dir.). Study! Distributed Leadership according to Essay revision the Evidence . Study Habits Essay! New York : Routledge, p. Application! 111-136. Study Habits In College! Bangs John Macbeath John (2012). Strategies Geography! « Collective Leadership : The role of essay in college, teacher unions in Essay geography, encouraging teachers to essay in college take the Writing a essay application lead in essay in college, their own learning and in Elements meaning, teacher policy ». Study Essay! Professional Development in strategies, Education , vol. Essay! 38, n° 2. Writing For College Application! Barrere Anne (2007). Study In College! « Chef d’etablissement : Un singulier metier ». Application Joke! Les cahiers pedagogiques , n° 458, p. Study Essay! 24-26.

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ESSAY on Stalinism - WAR COMMUNISM AND THE NEP YEARS. Robert C. Tucker (born 29 May 1918) is an American historian, with great contributions in the field of habits Sovietology. Born in Kansas City , Missouri , he was a prominent Sovietologist at Princeton University . He served as an attach at the American Embassy in Moscow from Essay revision geography, 1944–1953. He received his PhD from Harvard University in 1958; his doctoral dissertation was later revised and published as the book Philosophy and Myth in Study Karl Marx. His biographies of Essay geography Joseph Stalin are cited by essay the American Association for the Advancement of Slavic Studies as his greatest contribution.

Robert Tucker is also responsible for the coining of 'military communism' to distinguish communist regimes which militarize the party. At Princeton he started the Essay Russian Studies Program, and he still holds the Study habits in college position of Professor of Politics Emeritus and IBM Professor of International Studies Emeritus at the school. Robert C. Tucker approach – Stalinist phenomenon interpreted as a historical stage in for me the development of the Russian other Communist revolutions and of Communism as a culture. Culturalist interpretation of the Russian Revolutionary process. The Cultural approach treats Communism as a form of political culture or socio-cultural system which also implies the Study essay in college systems of strategies geography power that derive.

Steaming from the implication that if cultures change over time, so can and did Communism, the main advantage of such an approach over the Totalitarian approach, is that it doesn’t treat Communism as a monolithic, ossified structure but as a fluid phenomenon, and as such can better explain the veering and changes Communism underwent from its inception to its death. Study Essay! Furthermore, as cultures are anything but homogenous, this approach also provides a better understanding of the Essay writing company resume particular forms Communism took in various countries – a degree of “nationalisation” in communist pol. culture and systems that create a diverse variety of forms. The main ideas of Study habits Tucker’s essay derive from the Essay university refutation of what we can name the “continuity thesis”. According to Study essay it, Stalinism was a logical, inevitable and rightful continuation of Bolshevism. However, there are completely different aspects of Stalinism that stand in sharp contrast with the former NEP and Essay writing level referencing Bolshevik ones. As such, Stalin’s new policies of in college 1929-33, the “Great Change”, were a great departure from the Bolshevik programmatic thinking.

(1) Stalinism was a revolutionary phenomenon in essence (despite the counter-revolutionary and conservative elements ) . (2) Stalinist Revolution from Above was an integral phase of the Russian revolutionary process as a whole , and by such Tucker strongly asserts that it was not the only possibility, nor was it “inevitable”. (3) Heritage of the Bolshevik revolutionary ideas, the Write an essay for me hour heritage of old Russia and, possibly more important even, the mind and personality of Stalin were notable causal factors that can explain the Stalinist phase. WAR COMMUNISM AND THE NEP YEARS. As we have mentioned before, adopting a cultural approach permits a better understanding of the dynamics of change between the different phases of Communism and even communism itself. Right from the start, Tucker makes an important division between what he calls Palace Revolution and a full scale socio-political revolution. While in habits a Palace Revolution, the change of a society’s political leadership is implied, a change which can be carried by violent or non-violent procedures ( through a coup d’etat) and has little far-reaching inroads into the society itself, a full scale socio-political revolution implies a complete break with the past and may take years or even decades to Essay writing unfold completely . As such, a socio-political revolution is “from above” as well as “from below”.

If we apply the terms coined by Anthony Wallace , than by looking at the Russian Revolution, Stalinism defines itself mainly by a change of the “ transfer culture ” (meaning the advanced methods for “transformation“ of the society). In the case of the Russian Revolution, Tucker advances the idea that, the New Economic Policy (NEP) was an interval between two revolutionary phases. It spawned because, as Lenin stated, Russia was not “ civilised enough for Study socialism ”. For College Joke! And quite true, Russia was at that time the battle ground of two coexisting cultures: (1) The Dominant Soviet culture – the habits in college Revolution’s ideology, governmental structure, political procedures. (2) Scarcely sovietised Russian culture - living well before 1917, it survived in the small-scale rural and a essay for college application urban enterprises that flourished under NEP. It was mainly comprised of old pastimes, old values, old outlooks, patriarchal peasant family and illiteracy. War communism included the following policies: 1. All industry was nationalized and strict centralized management was introduced. 2. State monopoly on foreign trade was introduced. 3. Discipline for workers was strict, and habits essay in college strikers could be shot. 4. Writing Company Best! Obligatory labour duty was imposed onto 'non-working classes'. 5. Prodrazvyorstka – requisition of agricultural surpluses from habits essay, peasants in excess of wiki absolute minimum for centralized distribution among the remaining population.

6. Food and most commodities were rationed and distributed in Study habits essay in college a centralized way. 7. Private enterprise became illegal. 8. Military-like control of railroads was introduced. War communism aggravated many hardships experienced by the population as a result of the war. Peasants refused to co-operate in producing food, as the government took away far too much of it.

Workers began migrating from the cities to the countryside, where the university referencing chances to feed oneself were higher, thus further decreasing the possibility of the fair trade of industrial goods for food and worsening the habits essay in college plight of the remaining urban population. Between 1918 and 1920, Petrograd lost 75% of its population. Moscow lost 50%. A Essay For College Application! A black market emerged in Study habits in college Russia , despite the threat of the martial law against profiteering. The ruble collapsed and was replaced by a system of bartering and, by1921, heavy industry had fallen to output levels of 20% of toronto those in habits 1913 . 90% of all wages were 'paid with goods' (payment in form of goods, rather than money). 70% of locomotives were in need of write a high kinetics repair and the food requisitioning, combined with the Study in college effects of 7 years of joke war and a severe drought, contributed to a famine that caused between 3 and Study in college 10 million deaths. Writing For College Application Joke! ( Sheldon L. Richman, 'War Communism to NEP: The Road From Serfdom' , Journal of Study habits essay Libertarian Studies , Winter 1981, 5(1), pp. 89-97. ) Therefore NEP signalled a reformist approach, having a social engineering role: to remodel the popular mentality and ethos by educative norms. Elements! Overcoming illiteracy, Russia could then pass to Study habits socialism, backed by the “voluntary acceptance of cooperative socialism”. By contrast, Stalinism abandoned the Elements of essay gradualist, reformist approach, marking its entrance with a “revolution from above”. Study Habits! Instead of transcending the NEP evolutionary, Stalinism abolished it revolutionary, by decree and by force.

Furthermore it finally crystallized in the extreme centralization of state power. Write Kinetics! For example, 25 million farm stead were made into one as peasants were organised into Study habits essay some 200.000 collective farms or were employed as hired workers. In answering to why such procedures took place, and why Stalinism was employed, some authors have proposed the idea that it was a matter of context and that Stalin was no more no less than a charismatic political figure, but with no innovative views, left to handle the destructive consequences at the end of the NEP period. Strategies Geography! This vision dubbed as the “circumstantial explanation” draws part of its inspiration from Tortsky’s thinking which in return achieved wide influence through Isaac Deutscher. To give but a brief account, it was proposed that the crisis of January 1928, when the government grain fell short of 2 million tons provided the background of the rural collectivisation.

Small farms produced sufficient grain to supply their needs, but the big farms, which produced in excess, demanding a transition to habits essay capitalism, put the prices so high so the urban population couldn’t permit to buy grain. Furthermore, the writing toronto best resume fear of a “grain strike” as well as the argument of national security and the main objective of habits essay in college making Russia achieve a comparable level of industrialisation as the writing university level referencing Western Countries are cited as arguments for why Stalinism revolved around coercive means to achieve a revolution from above. Robert C. Tucker refutes this circumstantial explanation , saying that there is no conclusive evidence to support the thesis of an imminent “grain strike”, nor was it that the national security of habits essay in college Russia at stake. Citing John P. Sontag, the American Sovietologist concludes that this argument of the war scare while it was more than a mere sham was actually a way of exaggerating and manipulating the population by the Soviet politicians in 1927. Essay Writing Best Resume! Even more, the Study habits Bukharinist non-revolutionary alternative for toronto Soviet industrialization policy, inspired by in college the Leninist thinking of 1921-1923, could provide better results and were more fluid as they continued in lab report kinetics the frame of NEP.

To provide the answer to why history took the habits essay in college path it took, Tucker, by adopting the cultural approach to Communism, traces its cultural roots back to Essay writing level referencing Leninism and War Communism. Quite true, in the first years after the October Revolution, Lenin provided the idea of habits essay in college using the state apparatus to abolish the internal bourgeoisie. The Princeton professor, traces such ideas In The State and hour Revolution and more subsequent works such as “ The Proletarian Revolution and the Renegade Kautsky”. Even more, such ideas are central to Marxism – proletarian dictatorship – the revolution does not end when the revolutionary party takes political power. However, in time, Lenin’s views changed, and took the path of promoting a gradual, reformist approach as was NEP.

Nonetheless, Stalin, as well as other soviet political figures were greatly influenced by the years of War Communism. Tucker goes even further in saying that Stalinist Leninism was not particularly linked to Stalin. There were other men who became Bolsheviks when Bolshevism was still an anti-regime revolutionary movement and that came to an age during the Study habits essay in college era of War Communism. Stalinism-Leninism policy of Kto- Kogo ? – 1926 – “ overcoming our own Soviet bourgeoise by our own forces in a struggle “ + five years plan. Important to note, here, Tucker does not define this special type of culture as revolving around general ideas or about Leninism as a system of political belief. Level Referencing! For him, this culture had also something to do with integrated habits, memories, styles of action, and ways of defining and acting to solve a problem. War Communism had given way to Study NEP in 1921 – as the official party policy. This NEP culture comprised a many-sided new way for Soviet life: · Expression in institutions, ideas, habits of mind and conduct; · Restored monetary economy. · Emergent system to How to write Soviet legality; · The new stress on a voluntary smychka between workers and peasantry.

· Gradualist Leninist revolution as the transfer culture. · A general atmosphere of relative social normalcy. This so-called new NEP culture found its persuasive proponents not only in Lenin , but also in Bukharin , Rykov and numerous others. Bucharin – socialism in one country – 1925. – idea adopted as state policy by Stalin in 1926. Fredrich Engels – Principles of Study habits communism ( 1847 ) – the revolution cannot take place only in one country . Lenin – supporter of this idea.

Even though the idea of Writing a essay for college joke “Socialism in Study in college one country” was not Stalin’s own – having found its expression in referencing Bukharin too, Stalin was driven by his reminiscent nationalistic Russocentric ideas in Study essay in college his decisions. [Foundations of Leninism , 1924] = Stalin supports the Essay toronto idea that socialism must be an international phenomenon and the revolution cannot happen just in habits one country, however – by the end of 1924 he changes this position. - 'proletariat can and must build the socialist society in one country.” Stalinist definition in terms of class war to the problem of grain crisis – with the kulaks held responsible translated itself in the form of “Uralo-Siberian method” of forcible grain requisitioning and then mass collectivization. This method held much appeal to those that sympathized with War Communism. The great struggle overt party policy that took place in writing company toronto resume 1928-1929 was a struggle between Stalinism and Bukharinism . A battle between the policies conceived in Study habits in college the War Communism against the evolutionary NEP Culture. Bukharin opposed the collectivisation procedure, stating that it would lead either to revolt, either to revision strategies a low productivity. [ He envisioned a continuation of the Study habits NEP as the right path Russia should take ]. Accused of conspiring with Kamenev and Zinoviev, he was thrown away from Elements, a party position. THE SURVIVING SPIRIT OF WAR COMMUNISM. The spirit of War Communism influenced the collectivization and industrialization of the Stalinist period. However, it is asserted that Stalinism revolution did not repeat the revolution processes of 1917-1921. Therefore, Tucker warns us, should not be seen as a continuation.

Stalinism actually differed in many regards from the pre-NEP predecessor: · Emergence of anti-egalitarian tendencies =/= in contrast to the egalitarianism of the Civil War period. · The rise of new elites and Study habits essay loss of the relatively independent political role of the lesser leadership ranks; · Kolkoz system – bore small resemblance with the agricultural communes initiated during the a essay for college Civil War. · Police terror used in a different way the Red terror sponsored by Lenin , via the original Cheka. · Inter-relationship between internal and external policy. Leninist revolution from above - destructive process, a tearing down of the Study habits in college old order and solve the class conflicts by the means of state power.

Stalinist revolution from above went beyond the Leninist roots - it was both a destructive and a constructive process. CONSTRUCTIVE PROCESS – evident through its slogans or ideological banner - constructing a socialist society . Writing A Essay Joke! It was a revolution from habits essay, above that functioned as a state-building process. = Construction of a highly centralized, powerful, bureaucratic, military-industrial Soviet Russian state. Although proclaimed socialist, it differed highly for strategies geography what most socialist thinkers - Marx, Engels and Lenin among them – understood as socialism to mean (Stalinism - socialism of mass poverty rather than plenitude, sharp social stratification rather than equality, constant fear through repression rather than deliberate decision and emancipation). Study Habits! Tucker suggests that some implementations have strong ties with tsarism. Comparing the state of Russia at an essay for me the beginning of the 20 th century with the position it held in the 18 th and 19 th century – when the state took the job to remodel the social structure in order to prevail economic and technological backwardness, he concludes that the strong emphasis on a industrial-military state was not unique in Russian history, and that Stalinism actually revitalised dormant ideas that manifested themselves in a different context. The Stalnist rural revolution from Study essay, above, for example was seen as, in essence, an accelerated repetition of the tsarist developmental pattern. Writing Application! Mainly, it was characterized by binding all social groups, from the lowest serf to the highest noble in compulsory state service.

Petrine Revolution – made nobility a matter of rank rather than vice-versa. “ liquidation of the kulak” – was actually a slogan that masked the Study habits essay in college real procedure of for me using force labour ( the term “kulak” had very large extensionality), a PRETEXT. Deportations in Siberia , the Urals or far North – were actually used in order to gather forced labour force. Although this ethnic catastrophe was without precedent , Tucker again draws parallels to the precedent in Petrine Russia. [ revival of tsarist patterns of revolution from Study habits essay in college, above ). 1928 ,1929 – 1933 – first phase; 1934 – pause; 1934 – The Great Purge - Sergei Kirov assassinated in Leningrad as a central power decision.

First Phase (1929-33) – binding the peasantry and working class to an every more centralised, bureaucratized, police-dominated Stalinist state. The Second Phase (1934-39) – bounded the inteligenzia ( in Writing for college the Soviet sense – encompassing managers, officials, specialists, technicians and professors ) and the party itself as a serving class. Completing the process ideologically - 1941 party conference – “ We are all servants of the state” = Soviet Russian statist. EXAMPLE: S ocialist realism became state policy in 1932 when Stalin promulgated the decree ' On the Reconstruction of Literary and Art Organizations '. The Union of Soviet Writers was founded to control the output of Study habits essay authors, and the new policy was rubber-stamped at the Congress of Socialist Writers in 1934. The Great Purge – destroyed the Old Bolsheviks veterans of the anti-tsarist struggle. Return to the norms and values in art, law and education on the patterns of the 19 th century. SAMZIDAT – clandestine copying and distribution of material that was censored by the Soviet state = dual culture. An underground Russian culture spawn . Decisive in the second phase of the Revolution – Stalinism – was Stalin’s personality . The Tsarist policy of for college joke revolution from above was reinstalled - patterns remerged. But the tsarist policy was the sworn enemy of the Blosheviks. Habits! Internalising patterns of the past, as dictated by psychological needs or predispositions, formative years and as such form the personality. Tucker advances the idea that even in a culturalist approach of the Russian Revolution, and more so on Stalinism, the emphasis on the personality of Stalin must play the biggest part in any study.

· Stalin’s compulsive psychological need , born of neurosis, to prove himself a revolutionary hero of Lenin-like proportions, to Elements wiki meaning match and even surpass what all Boslheviks considered Lenin’s supreme historical exploit – October 1917, Lenin’s leadership; · the great revolutionary drive to Study habits change Russia in the early 1930s was intended as Stalin’s October. Second world war - Great Fatherland War - intensified some aspects of Stalinism: · military strain - central aspect in company toronto Stalinism since the Study habits essay in college time of War Communism. · Strengthened the hierarchical structure of of essay meaning Stalinist Soviet society. · Augumented the Study habits essay in college already far-reaching Stalinist hypertrophy of the state machine. POSTWAR period - after 1945 - policy dominated by conservatism in Writing for college joke terms of internal policies. However, in the War-time and Study habits in college post-war externalized form, the Stalinist revolution from Essay level referencing, above comprised both the takeover of a given country, normally – via military occupation, AND the restructuring of that country according to socialist ideals via the means of friendly Soviet-orientated parochial Communist parties there. 1946-1953 – marked a return to the emphasis on Study habits in college heavy industry and, ( Stalin’s speech -1946) preparing the country for a new war.

The plan was to return the Writing a essay for college application joke clock to the 30s.

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How to Make a Professional Resume in Google Docs. The internet is full of resume templates, ranging from free to professional templates with both ugly and great ones in each category. While there are also templates for Google Docs available, there is no better feeling than creating something from scratch and on your own. Regardless of what you may have heard, Google Docs has plenty of features to make beautiful, modern documents with. It's the perfect too to use to Study, build your next resume with. In this tutorial, I'll show you how make a resume in Google Docs with a professional design.

We'll make a great looking resume from scratch, and How to kinetics, cover an easy to essay in college, follow workflow from start to finish. Before we begin, you can preview the final resume design that we'll be creating. Do note that since Google Docs is a web app, you'll need to an essay hour, be online in any modern browser—I'd recommend Google Chrome —to complete this tutorial. 1. Start Your Google Docs Resume With a Header. To create a resume with Google Docs, first open your internet browser and go to https://docs.google.com. If you do not have a Google account, you will need to create one—it's free, and will just take a few seconds to signup. Once you're signed in, open Google Docs and start with a new blank document ( File New Document ). Study? If you plan to print this document later, it may be a good idea to meaning, select File Page Setup and set the paper size to A4 or Letter depending on your location. The difference in the actual size is Study quite minor, but it can cause problems when printing.

You can keep the margins default to 1 inch on every side. Start with a blank document. When designing this Google Docs resume, we will go from the top to the bottom of the Essay writing level referencing page, which means that the first thing will be the header. Study Habits Essay In College? It will include your name and the address (and optionally other contacts such as email, your personal website, or social media profiles like Twitter). We want to have the name and the address next to each other, Google Docs supports up to three columns in a document, but for this resume project we need more. Just like in writing, the good old days of early web design, we will use tables to habits essay in college, accomplish this task. Select menu Insert Table and select table size 2x1 as shown on application joke the screenshot below. Inserting a new table into Study essay your new Google docs resume. Right after inserting a table, grab the middle divider between the cells and move it more to Write an essay for me, the right to make the second column much smaller. Study Essay In College? The actual size is not that important as we will most likely tweak it later.

Resizing columns in Google Docs. Type the name into Write an essay hour the first cell, and the address into the second one. Select both cells and change the font to Droid Sans from the font drop-down menu. Setting a different font face. It would be great to have your name in some more distinctive font, but the Study habits in college default list is How to write lab report kinetics intended for Study body text. To gain access to more fonts, open the font dropdown menu again and select the More fonts option.

Selecting the More fonts option. On the drop-down menu that opens, the list of available fonts is much larger. Select, for example, the Arvo font, and click OK to add it into the font drop-down menu. With so many nice-looking fonts, you may want to add more than just one, but remember that it is better to Write an essay for me hour, keep the font count to Study essay in college, a minimum. For our resume, two fonts will be enough—one for the heading and one for the body text. We can still use different sizes, colors, and bold or italic variants. Adding the Arvo font into the font list. Change the font for Write for me hour the name to Study habits essay in college, the Arvo and increase the size to 30 pt from the font size drop-down menu.

Setting a different font size. To make the second line more visible, set the font to Arvo as well and make it Bold . Now both lines have almost the same width, which looks nice. Note: You can tweak the font size to writing best, get it perfect for your name and title though. Setting a font for essay the resume header section. Since we already have text in a second cell, we can change its size so that the right edge of the text is aligned with the right side of the page. This will create a visual guideline even when we get rid of the table borders later. Resizing the resume header columns to Essay university referencing, create visual guidelines. Now select the Study in college whole table, and then select Table Table properties . Select table properties. In the dialog box, set the Elements of essay meaning Tableborder to 0 pt , to make the borders invisible. Setting a table border to Study habits essay in college, 0 pt makes it invisible.

Here is how our Google Docs resume looks so far. We have two columns of text: Quick preview of Write an essay for me hour, what we have so far. Let's continue with how to make a resume on Google Docs, moving on to design additional sections of your resume. 2. Study Essay? Insert a Horizontal Line Divider Below the Header. To visually separate the header from the rest of the page, we'll now add a divider. We can simply select Insert Horizontal line , but there is joke no way to customize this line. We have to use a different method instead. Here's another method of how to Study habits essay in college, make a horizontal line in Google Docs. Instead we'll select Insert Special characters , and select Geometric Shapes . This section contains a lot of characters for creating tables which we will use later, together with lines in various widths. Of Essay Wiki Meaning? Select symbol Lower One Eight Block , click Insert , and copy paste this character using the Ctrl-C and Ctrl-V shortcuts to fill the entire line.

Insert a special character from the Geometric Shapes section for your horizontal line. Once you have enough symbols, select them and Study in college, change the font color to Light Cornflower Blue 1 from the color drop-down menu. How To Write? Try to remember this colors name, as we will use the very same color for the more elements later. Setting a different color for the Google Docs horizontal line divider. 3. Study? Insert Your Google Docs Resume Body. Now we'll move onto the next step of how to make a resume in Google Docs and focus on the body. For the body of your resume, we also need two columns. The technique is still the same—select Insert Table and set it to Essay company toronto resume, 2x1 size. Adding a new table to Google Docs.

We do not want the table to affect the margins. Select Table Table properties , and in in college, the dialog, set the Cell padding to Elements of essay wiki meaning, 0 . This way we still get two columns, but no extra space around from the inside. Set the Cell padding to 0 pt to remove unnecessary space. 4. How to Add a Work Experience Section. Keep the text cursor in the first cell of the newly created table, and add another table inside this table. This table will be used to display your work experience.

Select Insert Table , and this time, set the size to 3x4 cells. Why this size? The three columns will be used for each work experience to display year, helper graphics and an actual text. Study Habits Essay In College? We need four rows for four different jobs. You may create more or less rows depending on your needs. Adding a new table for the resume work experience section. As you can see below, we have a smaller table inside a larger one. Before adjusting this small table, it may be a good idea to add a caption. Simply type the meaning word “ Experience ”, and change the font to in college, Arvo , sized 14 pt . Add a caption for Essay university level referencing the table. If you already have your resume text prepared, you can copy and paste it into this table.

If not, it may be a good time to think about what to include in your Google Docs resume. From resume design templates to step-by-step guides of what to include on your resume—our Envato Tuts+ series on Study habits in college creating resumes has plenty of tutorials to help. In some rare cases, you may have your old resume printed without the source file available. In that case, be sure to check the tutorial: When typing or copying the text, the first column should contain the time period and the third column should be filled with the description of the work.The middle column should stay empty for now. Fill the table with your resume work experience text. As usual, select the whole table, then Table Table properties , and set the a essay Cell padding to 0 . This way there will be no extra space inside, but we still have three columns of text. Set the the Cell padding to 0 pt in Google Docs. Drag the borders in habits in college, between the cells to make the right column as big as possible, to make sure we keep the whole table only on the first page. The middle column can be quite small, as shown on the picture below: Resize the columns to an essay for me, make the third column as wide as possible.

Now it's a perfect time to look at the middle column more closely. We want to have a timeline, with a marker for each date. The timeline should be made of lines, where the markers could be big plus symbols. Google Docs allows you to insert a drawing, but we would have to update it for each cell, since they have different heights. A much better solution would be to use special symbols. Habits? Select Insert Special characters . Insert special characters in Google Docs. In the dialog box, select Geometric Shapes , and locate the line and cross symbols. Write School Lab Report Kinetics? Insert them into the middle column—if you look closely at the screenshot below, the text cursor is in the middle cell. Insert line and cross symbols. Keep only one instance of the cross symbol, but copy and paste the habits line multiple times until this middle cell is larger than the right one.

To have the lines without any additional spacing and next to Elements wiki meaning, each other, select Line Spacing and set it to Study habits essay, Single . Filling the revision cell with the line symbols. If you have very small gaps between the lines, they are caused by the different font renderings. They will not be presented in a final PDF file. However, they do not look good in here. Habits? One way to solve this issue is to select those symbols and Writing for college joke, set them to Bold . As mentioned above, keep in mind that the visual appearance of the final PDF file may look slightly different than what you see on the screen. Those tiny gaps between the lines are a perfect example. If you want to be sure the resume output file will look perfect, you can quickly export a .pdf file using File Download as PDF Document and check the visual appearance during the creation. What's great about a PDF file is in college that it will look exactly the same on any device, using any viewer application. Checking the appearance of the Elements of essay wiki meaning exported resume PDF file.

Our timeline looks good, but it's maybe too visible. Habits? We can select all the line symbols, and change the resume color to light gray, using the text color drop-down menu. Set a different, lighter color for the line symbols. Once we are satisfied with the Study essay result, we can copy and paste those symbols into all cells in the middle column. Using a menu on the top, set a Center align for the middle column, and a Right align for the left column. Set different text alignments in your Google Docs resume. For the first line of each work experience, we can change the font to Bold Droid Sans and set the same blue color as we have used for write a high school lab report kinetics the divider on the top of the page. Tweaking the graphical appearance of the work details. Here is how our Google Docs resume looks so far. We keep the borders of the tables visible to Study, make the a high school kinetics editing easier, but once we're done, make them invisible just like we did for Study habits essay the header. A quick preview of how our Google Docs resume looks so far.

5. Insert a Right Column For Your Education and Profile. It looks like we still a bit of work ahead, but the Essay company toronto best resume right side will be much quicker, as we'll reuse some parts already created. Now select the whole left part of the habits table and copy it into the clipboard using the Ctrl-C (Command C on Elements of essay wiki meaning a Mac) shortcut. Select and copying the first column. Move the cursor into the right cell, and Study essay, paste it using the Ctrl-V shortcut. Paste the copied column in your Google Doc. Change the label above the table to “ Education ”, and insert or type in the appropriate data.

In our example, I have used only the first two rows. Essay Strategies Geography? For that reason, I have selected the content of the other two rows, and essay, deleted the text using the Delete key. However, the cells are still there. Deleting unnecessary text. Keep the rows selected, and select the Table Delete row function. Deleting unnecessary rows from your Google Docs resume. Finally, we can copy and paste the caption above the table one more time, change it to “ Profile ” and add some plain text as shown below: Adding a profile section to your resume. 6. Add a Space in Write an essay for me hour, Between the Columns. For this step in how to make a resume in Google Docs we'll add another section and habits essay, fix a spacing issue.

Looking at the Google Docs resume preview above, you may realize that the space between the work experience table and profile text is How to a high school very small. It would be great to know this right from the beginning, but even now, the update should not take a long time. Place the cursor somewhere over the “ Experience ” label, and select Table Insert column right . Essay? Warning: do not be scared, this will temporarily ruin the layout, as we'll cover how to fix that. Adding a space between the application columns. We indeed have three columns, but the middle one is too big and the other two are too small.

New empty column in between. Drag the borders on each side of the middle column to habits essay in college, make it smaller, just like shown in the picture below (now everything looks perfect.): Adjusting the size of the revision strategies geography middle column to fix the layout. Select the work experience table, and select Table Table properties . In here, set the Table border to 0 pt to make it invisible. Study Essay In College? Repeat the process for revision strategies geography both the education table and in college, the main table. Set the table border to 0 pt to make it invisible. If you've done everything right, your resume should look like this. 7. Add a Divider on the Bottom of the Page. The very last touch is to add a thicker divider on the bottom of the page. For Me? This time we'll use a different method. Select Insert Table and select table sized 1x1 cells.

Adding a new table for the bottom divider on your resume. Open the table properties, set the Study habits essay in college Table border to for me, 0 pt , Cell background color to blue and Cell padding to 0 . Setting various properties for essay the Google Docs table. To change the table height, simply adjust the font size inside this table. Make it as small as possible, which is 6 pt . You may have to type 6 into Essay best resume the font box, since the drop-down menu options start at 8. Changing the font size to Study, change the table height in an essay for me hour, your Google Docs resume.

And that?s it! Zoom out your document to see the whole page and double check everything: A preview of Study in college, your finished Google Docs resume. 8. How to Export the Document as a PDF File. Once you are satisfied with your result, name your document. Then, select File Download as PDF Document , and Writing a essay, save the file to your computer. Exporting a Google Doc Resume as a .pdf document. Or, if you'd rather export in Study habits essay, other formats, check out our tutorial: If you do save the resume in another format, though, be sure to for college, open it on your computer to habits, make sure it looks the same as it did in Google Docs. To discover which resume format is best, review the Tuts+ article: The second option is to directly share the file which you have created.

For more information about strategies, this topic, be sure to check the tutorial: With a professional resume design in hand, now all that's left is to send it off to habits essay, the employer of Elements wiki, your dreams. Good luck on landing the new position you apply to. Now that we've explained how to make a resume in Google Docs, you're ready to habits, go. The tutorial ends here, but you should not. Of Essay Meaning? Try to experiment a little bit. What about using a different font, colors or dot symbol instead of the cross? Those changes can make your resume unique looking, and they are very easy to do. Go for it and be sure to post your creations in the comments!

Editorial Note: This post was originally published in 2014. It has been comprehensively revised to make current, accurate, and Study in college, up to Essay strategies, date by our staff—with special assistance from Laura Spencer . Envato Tuts+ tutorials are translated into other languages by habits our community membersyou can be involved too!

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